advantage-and we must never forget it-is that the irresistible tide that began 500 years before the birth of Christ in ancient Greece is for freedom and against tyranny. And that is the wave of the future, and the iron hand of totalitarianism can ultimately neither seize it nor turn it back. . . .

So we in the free world are not without hope. We are not without friends. And we are not without resources to defend ourselves and those who are associated with us. Believing in the peaceful settlement of disputes in the defense of human rights, we are working throughout the United Nations, and through regional and other associations, to lessen the risks, the tensions, and the means and opportunity for aggression that have been mounting so rapidly throughout the world. In these councils of peace-in the U.N. Emergency Force in the Middle East, in the Congo, in the International Control Commission in southeast Asia, in the Ten Nation Committee on Disarmament-Canada. has played a leading and important and constructive role.

If we can contain the powerful struggle of ideologies and reduce it to manageable proportions, we can proceed with the transcendent task of disciplining the nuclear weapons which shadow our lives and of finding a widened range of common enterprises between ourselves and those who live under Communist rule. For, in the end, we live on one planet and we are part of one human family; and whatever the struggles that confront us, we must lose no chance to move forward toward a world of law and a world of disarmament.

At the conference table and in the minds of men, the free world's cause is strengthened because it is just. But it is strengthened even more by the dedicated efforts of free men and free nations. As the great parliamentarian Edmund Burke said, "The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing." And that in essence is why I am here today. This trip is more than a consultation, more than a good-will visit. It is an act of faith-faith in your country, in your leaders, faith in the capacity of two great neighbors to meet their common problems, and faith in the cause of freedom, in which we are so intimately associated.

161. CANADIAN-UNITED STATES DISCUSSIONS COVERING "BROAD INTERNATIONAL ISSUES AS WELL AS SPECIFIC CANADIAN-UNITED STATES QUESTIONS": Joint Communiqué Issued at Ottawa by the President of the United States (Kennedy) and the Prime Minister of Canada (Diefenbaker), May 18, 1961 17

President Kennedy and Prime Minister Diefenbaker stated that they had had a welcome opportunity of renewing the personal contact they established during the Prime Minister's visit to Washington in February 18 and of examining together questions of concern to both

17 White House press release (Ottawa, Canada) dated May 18, 1961 (text as printed in the Department of State Bulletin, June 5, 1961, p. 843).

18 See ante, doc. 158.

their Governments. Their discussions covered broad international issues as well as specific Canadian-United States questions.

United Nations

The President and Prime Minister stated their confidence in the United Nations as an organization dedicated to the peaceful settlement of differences and the defense of national and human rights. Disarmament

They reaffirmed that the goal sought by both countries is a secure world order in which there can be general disarmament under effective controls. They agreed, in particular, that the negotiation of a nuclear test ban treaty with effective provisions for inspection was a basic step in the process of moving towards disarmament."

Defense

The President and Prime Minister examined certain aspects of U.S.-Canadian defense arrangements and the international defense commitments which both countries have assumed, notably in NATO. They expressed the conviction that a strong defense must be maintained until such time as effective disarmament measures can be secured under proper safeguards. They agreed that it is more than ever necessary that the strength and unity of NATO be reinforced. Western Hemisphere

The President and Prime Minister discussed the need for accelerating economic progress and social reform throughout the hemisphere, as well as the need to strengthen the strong hemispheric trend away from dictatorship and towards democracy. They recognized that these objectives are closely related. They were in accord that the alignment of a regime in the Western hemisphere with Communist leadership abroad was a matter for serious concern, threatening as it did the peaceful and democratic evolution of the Latin-American peoples. The Prime Minister assured the President of Canada's continued and increasing interest in inter-American affairs.

Laos

The President and Prime Minister examined the problem of Laos. They reaffirmed the objective of negotiating at Geneva a truly independent and neutral Laos.19 In this connection they examined the experience of the International Control and Supervisory Commission created by the Geneva Accords of 1954.20 They agreed that the development of and general support for effective control machinery represented a key element in a settlement of the Laos situation and an essential ingredient in achieving peace and stability in South East Asia.

19 See post, docs. 510 et seq.

20

See American Foreign Policy, 1950–1955: Basic Documents, pp. 775–785.

O.E.C.D.

Noting that both countries are now members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 21 and are participating in the Development Assistance Group,22 the President and Prime Minister examined the continuing responsibility of their countries to assist under-developed nations. Both countries have had active programs of economic assistance to under-developed nations for many years. It was agreed that the new machinery would enable the policies and contributions of the two countries in this field to be more closely related than in the past.

Trade

The President and Prime Minister noted the efforts which their two governments had been making in the tariff negotiations in Geneva to work out satisfactory trading relations with the European Economic Community 23 and exchanged views on how this broad objective of importance to both countries can best be achieved. They emphasized the interest of both countries in promoting employment and a general expansion of world trade.

To banish the scourge of war, to improve the human lot, to defend and to enlarge the area of freedom, to assist peoples less privileged than our own-these are aims that bind together Canada and the United States and which, with other allies and friends, our two countries will, jointly and steadfastly, pursue.

DEFENSE-AIR DEFENSE AND RELATED COOPERATION: Agreement Between the United States and Canada, Effected by Notes Exchanged at Ottawa, June 12, 1961 24

DEFENSE-IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CONTINENTAL AIR DEFENSE SYSTEM: Agreement Between the United States and Canada, Effected by Notes Exchanged at Ottawa, September 27, 1961 2 25

"See post, doc. 176.

22 See post, docs. 169 and 174.

23 See footnotes 8 and 9 to doc. 159, ante.

24 TIAS 4774; 12 UST 723. This agreement sets out the provisions governing "the assumption by the Government of Canada of the responsibility for certain continental radar defense stations hitherto the responsibility of the United States, the acquisition of [66] F-101B aircraft by the Government of Canada from the Government of the United States and cooperation in a program in a [$200 million] program for the procurement in Canada of F-104G aircraft to meet a Canadian mutual aid contribution to NATO and United States Military Assistance Program requirements."

23

TIAS 4859; 12 UST 1375. This agreement sets out the conditions governing the financing, installation, and operation in Canada of the following facilities: seven new heavy radar sites; forty-five gap filler radar sites; one SAGE (semiautomatic ground environment) Combat Centre/Direction Centre (electronic control and computing equipment); certain modifications to existing radars in Canada made necessary by SAGE; and two BOMARC missile squadrons.

E. Antarctica

162. THE ANTARCTIC TREATY, Signed at Washington, December 1, 1959, Entered Into Force, June 23, 1961 1

1

The Governments of Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, the French Republic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the Union of South Africa, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America,

Recognizing that it is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord;

Acknowledging the substantial contributions to scientific knowledge resulting from international cooperation in scientific investigation in Antarctica;

Convinced that the establishment of a firm foundation for the continuation and development of such cooperation on the basis of freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica as applied during the International Geophysical Year 2 accords with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind;

Convinced also that a treaty ensuring the use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only and the continuance of international harmony in Antarctica will further the purposes and principles embodied in the Charter of the United Nations;

Have agreed as follows:

ARTICLE I

1. Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only. There shall be prohibited, inter alia, any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, as well as the testing of any type of

weapons.

2. The present Treaty shall not prevent the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful

purpose.

ARTICLE II

Freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica and cooperation toward that end, as applied during the International Geophysical Year, shall continue, subject to the provisions of the present Treaty.

ARTICLE III

1. In order to promote international cooperation in scientific investigation in Antarctica, as provided for in Article II of the present

1 TIAS 4780; 12 UST 794. See also American Foreign Policy: Current Documents, 1959, pp. 506-511.

2

See ibid., 1956, pp. 1008-1024, and ibid., 1958, pp. 473–477.

Treaty, the Contracting Parties agree that, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable:

(a) information regarding plans for scientific programs in Antarctica shall be exchanged to permit maximum economy and efficiency of operations;

(b) scientific personnel shall be exchanged in Antarctica between expeditions and stations;

(c) scientific observations and results from Antarctica shall be exchanged and made freely available.

2. In implementing this Article, every encouragement shall be given to the establishment of cooperative working relations with those specialized Agencies of the United Nations and other international organizations having a scientific or technical interest in Antarctica.

ARTICLE IV

1. Nothing contained in the present Treaty shall be interpreted as: (a) a renunciation by any Contracting Party of previously asserted rights of or claims to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica;

(b) a renunciation or diminution by any Contracting Party of any basis of claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica which it may have whether as a result of its activities or those of its nationals in Antarctica, or otherwise;

(c) prejudicing the position of any Contracting Party as regards its recognition or non-recognition of any other State's right of or claim or basis of claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica.

2. No acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica or create any rights of sovereignty in Antarctica. No new claim, or enlargement of an existing claim, to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica shall be asserted while the present Treaty is in force.

ARTICLE V

1. Any nuclear explosions in Antarctica and the disposal there of radioactive waste material shall be prohibited.

2. In the event of the conclusion of international agreements concerning the use of nuclear energy, including nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste material, to which all of the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX are parties, the rules established under such agreements shall apply in Antarctica.

ARTICLE VI

The provisions of the present Treaty shall apply to the area south of 60° South Latitude, including all ice shelves, but nothing in the present Treaty shall prejudice or in any way affect the rights, or the exercise of the rights, of any State under international law with regard to the high seas within that area.