such as evaluating national monitoring networks, measuring the progress of environmental programs and studying relationships between pollution and its effects. In addition, EPA should summarize its data in more informative annual reports and disseminate data earlier and more widely to others who would find them helpful. EPA research reports, at least those that might have a major impact on public policy, should undergo stern scientific review, and some should be submitted to refereed journals. The agency should also publish the scientific and economic analyses upon which its decisions are based.

The problems with EPA's management of scientific data are exacerbated by the paucity of statistical talent in the Agency. In addition to producing and consuming data about the environment, EPA has many statistical responsibilities. For example, the Agency writes environmental guidelines and standards that must take account of natural variability, and it specifies statistical measures in regulations that must be designed for efficient enforcement. Statisticians are needed to cooperate with other scientists in improving the design of experiments and surveys and improving techniques for sampling, data analysis, quality assurance, and decision making under uncertainty.

It should be noted at this point that in the spring of 1978, EPA began to establish a small statistical office to begin to address these problems.

Required Coordination Mechanism

There has been a great need for a more coherent view of the Federal need for and production of environmental statistics. Moreover, some agencies which have primary environmental missions do not have a systematic view of their data needs and statistical resources.

The further development and improvement of Federal statistics on the environment should be facilitated by the establishment of the Interagency Task Force on Environmental Data and Monitoring. This task force will perform its charge through several activities to make environmental data and monitoring programs more effective. These include:

1. Identifying and documenting the most important problems, deficiencies, and needs of environmental data and monitoring programs that are conducted, supported, or used by Federal agencies;

2. Analyzing the pertinent issues, developing findings, and recommending paths of action

that can be taken to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of such programs;

3. Recommending new Federal programs or mechanisms as needed to accomplish these objectives; and

4. Developing options, estimating costs, making recommendations, and offering justifications for potential Executive actions.

The Task Force has formed working groups to concentrate on air pollution, water, ecological and living resources, natural resources and land use and socioeconomic data and monitoring. Analyses, findings and recommendations are expected to be included in a series of reports throughout 1978 and 1979.

The purpose of this chapter has been to portray the scope and complexity of Federal collection and analysis of environmental and work place statistics. It has sought neither to describe these activities in detail nor to provide a critique of the many statistical issues which characterize those data. So brief a summary should not be misread, for the issues identified are illustrative and do not exhaust the range of significant concerns which must be addressed. Although this chapter's description of environmental data collection is intended to be illustrative and summary in character, its recommendations are more prehensive. They are primarily addressed to management functions rather than statistical issues.

The need to review statistical programs in the light of the program administrator's experience is illustrated by the serious questions now being raised in regard to the global appetities for data associated with environmental impact statements. Environmental impact statements must be prepared by Federal agencies when actions on their part will have significant impact upon the environment. Such actions include awarding of construction grants for the building of dams and sewers and the issuance of permits to industry to discharge pollutants into navigable streams. Between 1970 and 1975 Federal agencies developed nearly 7,000 draft environmental impact statements. In many instances the drafting of these statements results in the agency imposing a significant reporting burden on the public. The scale of this reporting requirement and the fact that considerable variation exists between agencies in regard to the nature of those requirements has become an important issue. As a consequence the Council on Environmental Quality has been directed to assume responsibility for the development of Federal regulations which will standardize these requirements.

Since Federal statistics are gathered with a view toward implementing the particular missions laid on specific agencies by law, it is necessary to engage management in identifying those data needed to carry out their responsibilities. However, it is far from clear that unambigious lines may be drawn from statistical activities to environmental and work place programs which require data.

The problem in drawing unambiguous lines stems from the differences between statistical/analytical uses of data and regulation/enforcement uses required by the program manager. That the interest of regulators and statisticians are not necessarily coincident is exemplified by production of environmental data. The regulator may wish to ensure that a given source discharges nothing above some specified threshold value. To know that a

threshold has been exceeded may be and frequently is of greater concern to him than knowing the degree to which that threshold was exceeded. Moreover, he may be responsible for regulating the performance of a point discharge and have no responsibility to know about or take action in regard to streams or air sheds receiving pollutants from a particular point. Thus, from the viewpoint of compliance activity, measurement of the causal relationship which may exist between the discharge of specific quantities of pollutant and the quality of the receiving ambient media may be of no particular concern. However, it is just such measurement which may be of particular interest to scientists and statisticians. Further, from a statistical point of view, every effort must be made to assure that programs designed to yield statistical estimates must be designed to assure that no release of individually identifiable information be made for regulatory purposes.

"Transportation has substantially shaped the growth and development of the United States.... To sustain and enhance our economic vitality and growth, the productivity of our commerce and the quality of our leisure, we need a healthy and responsive transportation system. National transportation policy must serve these broad goals of our society by helping the development, financing and maintenance of a safe, efficient, accessible and diverse transportation system. Such a system should meet the needs of the American people-as passengers, consumers, employees, shippers and investors-in a way that is consistent with other national objectives. The values and priorities of our society are changing as the land on which we live is changing, and transportation must blend with other national goals in seeking heightened quality in the American way of life." '

Transportation involves a highly complex set of activities. Its main purpose is to transport people and commodities to and from specific points within urban areas, rural areas, or points outside the United States. In many cases there are alternative modes and combinations of modes by which these people or goods can be transported. A typical intercity passenger trip, for example, may involve a private automobile from home to a publicly owned airport, a commercial aircraft for between-city travel, and a taxicab, bus, or rental car from the destination airport to the final destination. Note that this trip involves private, commercial, and public interests, each providing a specific service.

In its recent report on "National Transportation Trends and Choices," the Department of Transportation pointed out that future travel demand will be conditioned by income and residential patterns, activity patterns and spatial relations, and whether or not the users of the transportation infrastructure are or are not directly charged for that usage. Future service demands of freight shippers are conditioned by many of the same factors. Additional factors are: cost, the attributes of the commodity to be moved, the level of service provided by different carriers, and

'A Statement of National Transportation Policy, by the Secretary of Transportation, September 17, 1975, Washington, D.C.

the special requirements of the receivers of the shipment. Public policy regarding transportation system development and future efforts required at the Federal, State, and local levels will, of course, be guided by these factors as well as by measurements of the current and estimated future performance of the different modes in terms of economic efficiency, service, safety, pollution, and energy consumption. The availability of both quantitative and qualitative information will undoubtedly improve public and private transportation decisions.

Issues and Corresponding Data Requirements

The desire to accomplish national goals and objectives and the complex relationships implied by a transportation network inevitably lead to various national problems and issues. The effective resolution of these issues at the Federal, State, and local levels requires reliable information.

In general, statistics are available which tell us much but not all we need to know about individual modal systems. However, there is a scarcity of information with which to make reasonable judgments about intermodal relationships and the potential for reduced cost, energy consumption, or pollution through intermodal transfers. We also need to know more about why individuals and businesses make the transportation choices that they do. Without such information it is difficult to design and implement public policies that would provide the proper level of transportation service to the greatest number of users with minimum financial cost, energy consumption, and environmental disruption.

There are some additional issues specific to each category that need to be emphasized. These are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Mobility for the Disadvantaged

The segment of the Nation's population that most critically needs basic community services is the same segment that tends to have the least physical access to these services. The young, the elderly, the poor, the handicapped, and the chronically unemployed should be able to take full advantage of health care services, welfare services, educational opportunities, banking

and legal services, as well as recreational and social activities; but their access to these opportunities is limited, not only by financial resources but by transportation access as well.

Lack of mobility for the disadvantaged is not confined to urban areas. Rural areas have a proportionally, if not numerically, larger segment that is disadvantaged, and greater distances intensify the mobility problem. If sound policies are to be developed, an adequate information base relating to the needs of the disadvantaged and to the capacity of the system to serve them is essential.

Financial Assistance, Subsidization, and Regulation

A major part of the Federal transportation budget is associated with development, administration and evaluation of grant-in-aid programs to State and local governments. These programs cover construction of highways, construction and operation of public transportation systems, airport development, highway and marine safety, and railroad development. The major issues relating to these programs relate to the financial need of State and local governments, eligibility for and allocation of funds, and the evaluation of the program effectiveness in achieving Federal objectives.

The determination of when user charges should be applied, at what appropriate level and by whom is quite complex. In addition to assessing their impact on the competing carriers, community and environmental impacts must also be considered as is the case related to waterway user charges. Highway user charges involve consideration of the allocation of costs among the various user groups as well as the relative contributions of Federal, State and local governments.

With respect to regulation, it is clear that carriers, shippers and passengers frequently face a web of restrictive government regulations which stifle competition, discourage innovation and foster inefficiency. The major problems that must be addressed are the ability of the regulatory agencies to recognize changes in competitive positions, the inequities in subsidies and taxation of the various modes, uniform rules for the regulation of pricing, and the level and nature of the regulation required.

To be able to formulate sound policies regarding these complex issues, rather detailed financial and operating statistics are needed from State and local governments as well as from the private sector.

Federal System Management

The Federal role in transportation is primarily one of national policy development, financial assistance

and regulation. However, there are certain components of the system which are under the direct control or operation of the Federal Government. In these areas, the Federal Government requires information by which to manage and plan these facilities. These operational responsibilities include the air traffic and air navigation systems, safety and environmental programs of the U.S. Coast Guard, operation of locks and waterways by the Corps of Engineers and the St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation, delivery of mail by the U.S. Postal Service, Alaskan Railroad, national capital airports (Dulles International and Washington National), national parkways, and the military movements of goods and personnel.

The Federal Government also has emergency responsibilities which include the preparation of emergency plans, programs and procedures. The objective is to provide an adequate state of readiness for transportation resources in the case of natural disasters, strikes and other emergency conditions.

Safety and Security

The responsibility for transportation safety is shared among the various levels of government, industry, and the general public. The areas of Federal responsibilities include highway and vehicle design, air traffic control, aircraft and pilot certification, ship construction standards, vessel traffic and navigation service, port safety standards, recreational boating safety standards, and railroad, motor carrier, pipeline and hazardous material regulation. Federal programs relate to accident prevention, accident survival, emergency response and research data collection and evaluation.

Data are required on the magnitude and nature of the accident problem for each of the transportation modes and on the effects of the various regulatory actions and safety programs instituted to minimize such accidents. In addition to accident data, exposure data, or data on "accident risk" are also required in order to facilitate the analysis of accident rates among the various modes. Essentially accidents can be considered a cost (to society) of operating the various transportation modes and represents a major factor to be considered in terms of transportation planning. Motor vehicle accidents amount to tens of billions of dollars annually alone.

International Transportation Policy

In an increasingly interdependent international economy, U.S. transportation provides vital links. among the world's nations. Since the end of World War II, international trade and travel have grown very rapidly, and the United States has become

increasingly dependent upon the foreign markets and foreign resources which international transportation makes accessible.2

Currently, a broad range of issues and policy decisions confront the United States in the field of international transportation including:'

1. The organization and regulation of international air transportation;

2. The structure of international shipping services;

3. The safety and environmental consequences of international transportation operations, including the pollution controls and the noise and other standards required on international transport equipment entering the United States;

4. The compatibility of equipment employed for international multimodal services, including the containerization of cargo;

5. The development of appropriate international legal regimes on such questions as liability and claims procedures, and balancing the interests of carriers and shippers;

6. Simplification and standardization of the documentation and processing required to serve both private sector and governmental needs;

7. The flow of travelers and luggage across international borders subject to customs and other types of inspection processing;

8. The viability and profitability of U.S. private flag carriers when much of their foreign competition is governmentally owned or subsidized; and

9. The prospect for continued world preeminence of the U.S. aeronautical manufacturing industry in light of the challenge from subsidized European competitors.

Obviously, the information requirements for proper international policy analysis are tremendous; however, they fall into the same general categories as for domestic issues. A special problem relating to international issues is the collection of comparable data on foreign-owned operations.

Policy Planning, Program Development and
Evaluation

Multimodal national transportation planning at the Federal level can provide a tentative view as to

'Ibid. 'Ibid.

the future evolution of transportation, and identifies questions of what choices and changes should be made so that the actual evolvement would be one which best serves the Nation. The most recent work emphasizes as both a physical and an economic overview a statement of opportunities to improve transportation and forecasts of what can and should be avoided by timely action. The planning effort rests

on:

-a base of economic and transportation information which has large gaps in critical areas particularly in the area of multimodal transportation;

-forecasts of events that could influence transportation radically;

-cause and effect relationships; and

-tentative judgments concerning the relative values placed on human life, time, esthetics, the environment, and so forth, that are always open to controversy and question.

The ability to respond more efficiently to existing and future transportation needs and to understand the indirect effects of our policy, planning, and program development actions requires an accurate understanding of the complex problems involved in the planning of the future of transportation. This requires the improvement of measures of performance and the information base to support cost-benefit methodology. Transportation system performance measures are required for assessing the effectiveness of alternative Federal program and policy options and evaluating the health and progress of the transportation system.

Legislative Mandates for Collection of Information

Federal Level

Under the enabling legislation for the Department of Transportation, the Secretary is charged with the responsibility to:

...promote and undertake development, collection, and dissemination of technological, statistical, economic, and other information relevant to domestic and international transportation... (P.L. 89-670, Sec. 4(a)).

This section does not address specifically the different needs of the Federal, State and local governments, the academic community or the general