THE SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS.

The signification of a word is the sense in which men generally understand it. The signification of all words is either primary or secondary.

The primary or literal meaning is that in which a word is first used in a language.

The secondary or figurative meaning is that which is afterwards superinduced on the primary meaning.

A word can have but one primary meaning, but it may have various secondary meanings.

Some words have no other than their primary meaning; as, reward.

Some words are used both in their primary sense, and in one or more secondary senses:

Thus, the word spirit, from the Latin spiro, I breathe, in its primary sense signifies the breath or soul of man; but in a secondary sense means courage, also inflammable distilled liquor.

The word edify, from the Latin ædes, a house or building, and facio, I make, primarily signifies to build a house; but secondarily signifies to build up in knowledge, or to instruct.

The word usher, from the French huissier, in its primary or literal. sense, signifies the doorkeeper of a court, or one who introduces strangers; but in a secondary sense the word is applied to an assistant teacher, where it seems to refer to his office of introducing the scholars to learning, or opening the door of knowledge.

Some words have lost their primary signification, and retain only their secondary:—

Thus, journey, from the French journée, a day's work, now means travel by land.

Pagan, from the Latin payanus, a villager, now means a heathen, or one not a Christian.

Some words have been employed in different and successive senses in different ages:

Thus, prevent formerly meant to go before as a guide; it now signifies to hinder.

Charity, as used in the Bible, signifies love; it is now generally restricted to almsgiving or liberality to the poor.

Tide formerly meant time; it is now applied to the ebbing and flowing of the sea.

It is important to distinguish between the primary signi fication of a word and its present use. Disputes sometimes occur, because two parties attach different meanings to the same word.

DERIVATION AND SIGNIFICATION OF THE LEADING PREPOSITIONS AND

CONJUNCTIONS.

PREPOSITIONS.

Above, from the Anglo-Saxon abufan, higher.

Among, from gemong, mixed, the past participle of mengan, to mix.
After, the comparative of the adjective aft.

About, from abutan, surrounding; or abuta, a boundary.

By, the imperative of beon, to be.*

Between, the imperative be annexed to twain, two; 'be twain' or 'be two.'

Beyond, the imperative be annexed to goned, the past participle of gan, to go; as, beyond the place, that is, be passed the place. Beneath, the imperative be compounded with the adjective neath, low.†

Before

Behind Below

Beside

from the imperative be, and the words fore, hind, low, side.

From, the Saxon fram, or Gothic frum, beginning or source. Thus, 'figs came from Turkey;' that is, figs came, the source or beginning was Turkey.

Near, the Saxon adjective ner or neahr, contiguous.

Nigh, from the Saxon neah or nih, near, not distant.

Over, from the Saxon ofer, or Gothic ufar, comparative of ufa, high. Through, from thurh, a door, gate, or passage; as, he passed through the hall, that is, the hall being the passage.

To, the same originally with do, signifies finishing or completion. Thus, figs came from Turkey to Britain; that is, the beginning or source was Turkey; the finishing or end was Britain.

Under, the Saxon under, Gothic undar, Dutch onder, lower,

With, the imperative of withan, to join. Thus, a house with a party wall, that is, a house, join a party wall.

Without, from with, the imperative of wyrthan, to be, and utan, out. Without meaning be out.

Within, from the same imperative with, and in; within, be in.

The prepositions into, amid, around, and some others, need no explanation.

CONJUNCTIONS.

And, an abbreviation of anad, the imperative of the verb anadad, to add or accumulate; as, three and three make six, that is, three add three make six.

By was formerly written be; as, Damville be right ought to have the leading of the army.'-Tooke.

† Whence nether and nethermost.

* Withouten occurs as a preposition in early English writers.

But, implying addition,* is the imperative of botan, to boot, to add; as, the air is cold, but it is refreshing. It was originally written bot.

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one of two.'

Either is the same as the adjective either, expressive of Thus, it is either wet or dry; that is, it is one of the two, wet or dry.

If, from the Saxon gif, imperative of gifan, to give or grant; as, if they go; that is, give or suppose that they go.

Lest, a contracted form of lesed, the past participle of lesan, to dismiss. Thus, avoid bad company lest your morals be corrupted;

that is, this being dismissed or omitted, your morals will be corrupted.

Or, a contraction for oder, the Saxon word for other; as, give me either the black or the white; that is, give me one of the two-the black-other, the white.

Though, an imperative from the Saxon theak or Gothic thauk, meaning to allow or grant; as, though he should speak truth, I would not believe him; that is, allow, grant, he should speak truth.

That is the same as the pronominal that.

Unless, from onles, the imperative of unlesan, to dismiss; as, you cannot succeed unless you study; that is, take away, or dismiss your studying, and you cannot succeed.

Yet is from the imperative of getan, to get. Thus, he was learned, yet he was modest; that is, he was learned, yet (get or grant this) he was modest.

QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION.

Of what does derivation treat? Give a short history of the English language. Name the different sources which have contributed to the English language. Give examples of words derived from the Celtic. From the Saxon. From the Danish. From the French. From the Latin. From the Greek. From the Hebrew. From the Dutch. From the Spanish. From the Italian. From Asia. From America. From names of places. From names of persons.

Into what two classes may all words be divided? What is a primitive word? A derivative word? What are prefixes and affixes? Why do prefixes, affixes, and roots sometimes vary their form? Give a list of prefixes of Saxon origin? Of Latin origin? Of Greek origin? Give a list of the principal affixes to nouns? To adjectives? To verbs? To adverbs ?

Name some of the ways in which English derivatives are formed from English primitives. What is meant by the term root in language? Give examples of the same root or word running through several languages. Give examples of words derived through the French from the Latin.

Name as many Latin roots as you can remember, and give English words derived from them. Name as many Greek roots as you can remember, and give English words derived from them. Name some words that occur frequently in the names of places, towns, and rivers, and give their meaning.

What is meant by the signification of a word? What is the primary or literal meaning of a word? What is the secondary or figurative meaning? How many primary meanings can a word have ? How many secondary? Give examples of words used in their primary sense, and also in one or more secondary senses. Give an example of some word that has been employed in different senses in different ages.

Give the derivation and signification of some of the leading prepositions. Of some of the leading conjunctions.

* But, signifying exception, is the imperative of to be, prefixed to utan, out; as, there was none but (be out) you. In this sense but may be classed with the prepositions, being nearly the same as without or unless.

SYNTAX.

SYNTAX is that part of grammar which treats of the arrangement, connection, and dependence of the several parts of a sentence.

A sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to make a complete assertion or proposition.

Sentences are of three kinds; namely, Simple, Compound, and Complex.

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite verb; as, 'Man is mortal.'

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences, independent of each other, united by means of conjunctions; as, 'Man is mortal, and life is uncertain.'

A complex sentence contains one principal assertion, accompanied by one or more explanatory or secondary sentences dependent upon and qualifying the principal sentence; as, 'I received the letter which you sent to me.' Every simple sentence comprehends at least three elements or parts; namely,

A nominative which is also called the subject;
A verb which is also called the copula;

An attribute which is also called the predicate.

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These three parts constitute what is called a 'logical proposition; as, Time is flying.' Summer is pleasant.' Stones are hard.'

The subject is the person or thing of which we speak. The predicate is the action or quality which we attribute to the subject.

The copula is the verb which connects the predicate with the subject, and is always some part of the verb to be.

The copula and predicate are, however, frequently included in a single word; as, ' Time flies:' here flies includes both the copula and the predicate, and is equal to "Time is flying. John walks' is equal to John is walking.'

The verb which includes two parts of a proposition is called the predicate or attribute. In every sentence there must be a subject and a predicate.

In addition to these parts, when the verb is transitive, a simple sentence contains an object; as, 'John loves fruit; here fruit is the object of the verb loves.

A simple sentence may also contain one or more adjec