capital of Irak, under the califs of Bagdad. It was taken by Timûr in 1387, when 70,000 of the inhabitants are said to have been massacred. During the 17th c., under Shah-Abbas the Great, it became the capital of Persia, and reached the climax of its prosperity. Its walls were then 24 miles in circuit, and it is said to have had between 600,000 and 1,000,000 inhabitants. It was then the emporium of the Asiatic world; the merchandise of all nations enriched its bazaars, and ambassadors from Europe and the East crowded its court. In 1722, it was devastated by the Afghans, and some time afterwards the seat of government was transferred to Tehran (q. v.).

I'SRAEL, KINGDOM OF. See JEWS.

ISSOIRE (anc. Issiodurum), a town of France, in the department of Puy-de-Dôme, at the confluence of the Couze and Allier, 20 miles south-east of Clermont. Pop. 6000.

ISSOUDUN, a manufacturing town of France, in the department of Indre, is situated on the river Théolle, on the railway from Orleans to Limoges, 18 miles north-east of Châteauroux. The principal manufactures are woollen cloth and yarn. Pop. 12,234.

ISSUE, in Law, means the point of fact in dispute which is submitted to a jury.

ISSUS, anciently, a seaport on a gulf of the same name in Cilicia, Asia Minor, celebrated for a victory which Alexander the Great obtained here over Darius (333 B. C.), by which the camp and family of Darius fell into his hands. Its exact site has not been ascertained.

ISTALI'F, a town of Afghanistan, situated 22 miles north-north-west of Cabul, on a tributary of the Cabul river. In 1842, it was partially destroyed by the British. Previous to that event, it had 15,000 inhabitants, who were employed chiefly in spinning, weaving, and dyeing cotton.

ISTHMUS (Gr.), in Geography, a narrow neck of land joining two portions of land. The name isthmus was by the ancients often employed without any addition to designate the Isthmus of Corinth, joining the Peloponnesus to continental Hellas. Here there was a famous temple of Neptune, and here also were celebrated the ISTHMIAN GAMES (one of the four great national festivals of Greece), at first every third year, and afterwards every fifth year. They were said to have been originally instituted by Sisyphus, and afterwards restored by Theseus. The games, like those of Olympia, consisted of athletic exercises, with the addition of competitions in music and poetry. The victors were crowned with garlands of fir, and their statues were placed in the temple of Neptune. Down to the destruction of Corinth by the Roman general Mummius (146 B.C.), the management of these games was in the hands of the rulers of that city, though the Athenians always enjoyed the seats of honour. The Romans added the coarser and more brutal amusements of gladiatorial exhibitions and fights with wild beasts. The spread of Christianity was fatal to their popularity, but we still read of them in the reigns of Constantine and Julian.

I'STRIA, an Austrian margraviate, which, with the county of Görz and Gradiska, and the town and territory of Trieste, forms the Austrian crownland of the coast-districts or Küstenland. It consists of a peninsula projecting into the northeast corner of the Adriatic Sea, together with the adjacent Quarnero Islands.

ISVORNIK. See ZVORNIK.

power, hence literally, lord) is an epithet applied to different Hindu divinities, but in mythological acceptation mostly designates S'IVA (q. v.).

ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE. This term is usually limited to the style practised by the Italian architects of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, and which has since been adopted in every country in Europe. This style originated in a revival of the ancient architecture of Rome. Although Gothic architecture had been practised in Italy during the 13th and 14th centuries, it had never been thoroughly naturalised. The Italians always shewed a preference for the round arch over the pointed northern form; and even in the buildings they erected in the pointed style, there is a certain simplicity As early as 1350, Giovanni Pisano, in the beautiful and largeness of parts indicative of a classic feeling. sculpture of the pulpit at Pisa, shewed a return to the ancient models. Arnolpho di Lapo built the cathedral of Florence (1290-1300), and in his design, proposed a great dome (a remarkably Roman feature) over the crossing of the nave and transept. This he did not live to complete; but he prepared the way for Brunelleschi, the chief aim of whose life was the accomplishment of the great dome of the cathedral. He went to Rome to study the ancient buildings there, at that time neglected and hardly known to the Italians themselves. After devoting a considerable time to exploring these monuments, he returned to Florence; and, after

Library of St Mark's, Venice, Ricardi Palace, Florence, by Sansovino. by Michelozzo.

Total,

311,734 376,466 877,120

Area in Square Miles.

7,146,864 33,607

192,481

426.072

263,641

893,744

263,205

560,554

216,228

2,315,925 9,986

21,920,239 98,160 The present capital is Turin, the chief town of Piedmont. It is, however, contemplated to restore to Rome the title of capital whenever the course of events shall have transferred the Eternal City to the jurisdiction of the Kingdom of Italy. By the incorporation of these numerous states into one powerful sovereignty, the entire peninsula, with the exception of the Roman and Venetian territories, has become subject to the sway of one native Italian monarch, and amenable to an absolute assimilation of laws and polity, while the annexed states, in exchange for their political autonomy, have attained to a European rank, from which they were excluded as separate petty sovereignties.

The Venetian states are still subject to the sway of Austria.

The present Papal possessions consist of the reduced territory of the city of Rome and the Comarca, of Viterbo, Civita Vecchia, Velletri, and Frosinone.

Physical Aspect.-The physical aspect presented by the surface of I. is diversified in the extreme. Northern I. is, for the most part, composed of one great plain the basin of the Po, comprising all Lombardy and a considerable portion of Piedmont and Venice, bounded on the north-west and partly on the south by different Alpine ranges. Throughout Central I., the great Apennine chain gives a picturesque irregularity to the physical configuration of the country, which in the southern extremity of I. assumes still wilder forms. In the high-land districts of Naples, in which the Apennine ridge reaches its maximum elevation (10,000 feet), the scenery exhibits a savage grandeur. Along the extensive coast-plains, as well as in the sub-Apennine valleys, the rural charms of this portion of I. are extreme, while the brilliant flora and vegetation impart to it a novel character of beauty. The chief mountain-system of I. is the frontier-ridge of the Alps (q. v.), and its noble continuation the Apennines (q. v.).

Volcanic Zone.-I. likewise comprises a consider able stretch of volcanic zone, which traverses the peninsula from the centre to the south in a parallel line with that of the Apennines, and of which the most remarkable active summits are Vesuvius, adjoining Naples; Etna in Sicily; and Stromboli in the Lipari Isles.

Plains. The great plains of I. are those of Lombardy, which stretches from the Mincio to the Ticino and the Po; of Piedmont; the Venetian plains; the plain of the Roman legations; the plain of the Campo Felice, on which stands Vesuvius; the Apulian plain; the long, narrow Neapolitan plain of the Basilicata, 100 miles in length, and 24 miles in breadth, stretching along the Gulf of Tarento.

Rivers. The great majority of the rivers of I. are only navigable for small coasting boats or barges. By far the most important is the Po (q. v.), which rises on the borders of France, and flows into the Adriatic. It has numerous tributaries. Among the others may be mentioned the Adige, Brenta, Piave, Tagliamento, Aterno, Sangro, Metauro, Ofanto, Bradano, also belonging to the Adriatic basin; the Arno, the Tiber, the Ombrone, the Garigliano, and the Volturno, which belong to the Mediterranean basin. The classical and historical associations of many of the Italian streams, even when mere rivulets, invest them with perennial interest.

Canal System.-The canal system of I. is most extensive in the north. Nine principal canals in Lombardy administer to the irrigation of the plains and to the purposes of commercial communication, contributing in no small degree to the prosperity of the district. The Naviglio Grande or Ticinello is the finest hydraulic construction in I.; it communicates between the Ticino and Milan, and has a course of 28 miles navigable for vessels of large size. It was begun in 1179. The Naviglio Martesana, 38 miles long, unites Concesa on the Adda with Milan; the Naviglio di Pavia is 18 miles in length; the bifurcated Naviglio d'Ostiglia unites the Po with the Adige. 253 canals intersect Piedmont, extending over a length of 1932 kilomètres. Venice comprises 203 navigable, and 40 minor canals. Numerous canals have been constructed for the drainage of the Pontine Marshes. This system of water-communication was early carried to a high degree of efficiency in I., and is of incalculable service in the agricultural districts.

Lakes. The mountain lakes of I. are famed for their picturesque beauty. They are mostly in the northern provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. The principal are Maggiore, Lugano, Como, Iseo, and Garda. The Roman lakes of Perugia, Bolseno, and Bracciano, that of Castiglione in Tuscany, and Celano in Naples, also deserve mention.

Springs. The mineral and thermal springs of I. are innumerable, and possess a great variety of curative and sanitary properties.

Climate. In the northern provinces, the climate is temperate, salubrious, and frequently severe in winter; in the centre, it assumes a more genial and sunny character; while the heat of the southern extremity is almost of a tropical intensity. The singular clearness of the atmosphere sets off the landscape and monumental beauties of I. with brilliant effect. The drawbacks of I.'s climate are the piercing tramontana or mountain winds; the deadly sirocco, which blights all nature at seasons along the western coast; and the malaria or noxious miasmata which issue from the Maremma of Tuscany, the Pontine Marshes, and the Venetian lagoons, generating pestilential fevers and aguish diseases in the summer season. The mean temperature of the leading divisions of the country throughout a whole year was as follows: Milan, 55° 4' of Fahrenheit's scale; Rome, 59°; Palermo, 62° 5′; and in Sardinia, 60° 5. The highest temperature at Rome rises to 95°, and in Sicily from 97° to 104°.

Products.-The staple products of I. are corn, wine, oil, raw silk, rice, olives, and fruits, besides

by Pepin (754) and Charlemagne (774), the latter of whom was crowned emperor of Italy. The Lombards, however, retained the great duchies of Benevento, Spoleto, &c., till the advent of the Normans. In 842, the Saracens invaded I., and took possession of many important places on the southern coast, which they held till 1016, when they were driven out by the Normans. On the fall of the Carlovingian dynasty (888), the crown of Italy fell to Berengarius I., chief of the Friuli, whose descendant, Berengarius II., did homage to Otho I. of Germany as his lordparamount (951); and in 961, Otho deposed his vassal, and assumed sovereign rights over the Italian kingdom. From this period, the chief towns of Italy rapidly emerged from their previous insignificance. A foremost object of Otho and his successors was the abasement of the papacy; and for a time these emperors successfully arrogated to themselves the right of nominating to the chair of St Peter the occupant most attached to imperial rule. The accession of Konrad was the signal for various tumultuous risings of the Italians against their German rulers, who had grown the object of general detestation. Important feudal modifications during this reign tended still further to weaken the great feudal lords, and to exalt the inferior vassals and citizens. Under the reign of his successor, Henry III., we find the spirit of association, alike for offence or defence, waxing strong in Italy. The aggrandisement of the great Guelphic House of Este (q. v.), the bloody wars of the Investiture (q. v.), and the establishment of an ameliorated form of municipal government (1100), are the three most notable events that occurred under the Franconian dynasty.

Under the Hohenstaufen dynasty, Italy enjoyed an interregnum from foreign rule of about 60 years, which, however, was wasted in suicidal conflicts between the two factions of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. The most terrible incident of this period was the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers (q. v.). Notwithstanding the inveterate internecine feuds of Italy, it was a period of great splendour and prosperity. The free cities or republics of Italy rivalled kingdoms in the extent and importance of their commerce and manufactures, the advancement of art and science, the magnificence of their public edifices and monuments, and the prodigious individual and national wealth to which they attained. Unhappily, a spirit of rivalry and intolerance grew up during this period of medieval splendour, and in the arbitrary attempt of these states to secure supremacy over each other, they gradually worked their own destruction.

From the Sicilian Vespers (1282) to the reign of Henry VII. (1308), the chief historical incidents are the war between Genoa and Pisa, ending in the abasement and ultimate decline of the latter (1284); the quarrels of the Guelphic factions, the Bianchi and the Neri, in Tuscany; the papal efforts for their reconciliation (1301); the residence of the popes at Avignon (1304-1377); and the rise into importance of the oligarchic republic of Venice (1311). During the first half of the 14th c., the German emperors made several fruitless attempts to regain political supremacy in L.; but in 1355, the Emperor Charles IV. gave up the struggle.

The tyrannical rule of several petty tyrants, of which the foremost were the Visconti or lords of Milan, replaced that of the emperors. From the middle of the 14th c. to the end of the 15th, the collective history of I. ceases, each city being ruled by some powerful local family-as, for example, Verona by the Della Scala, Padua by the Carrara, Ferrara by the Este families, and Mantua by the illustrious princes of Gonzaga; Milan by the Della

See also

In

Torre, Visconti, and Sforza families. GENOA, PISA, FLORENCE, VENICE, NAPLES, &c. From 1495 to 1525, I. was the theatre of the sanguinary struggles between France, the native rulers, and the Hapsburgs, but the battle of Pavia (1525) thoroughly established the ascendancy of the German emperor, who appointed over the various states rulers of his own selection. During the 17th c., no events of note mark the history of I.; the country being at peace, the various states pursued commercial traffic and industry, as far as their decreased limits permitted. In the following century, some territorial changes were effected during the war of the Spanish Succession. 1793, I. partially entered the European coalition formed against France, whose arms, however, proved irresistible. By the treaty of Campo Formio, 17th October 1797, the entire state of Venice was transferred to Austria, while the rest of the country, under various designations, became for the most part a dependency of France. In this anomalous condition it remained during the rule of Napoleon. After the battle of Waterloo, the final reconstitution of I. was decreed as follows by the congress of Vienna: the kingdom of Sardinia reverted to the House of Savoy, to which were added all the provinces of the Genoese republic; the LombardoVenetian kingdom fell to Austria; the principalities of Modena, Reggio, and Mirandola, to which was soon annexed Massa and Carrara, were restored to the family of Este; Lucca was created a duchy, for the rightful Duke of Parma, whose hereditary state was conferred on Maria Louisa, ex-empress of the French; the duchy of Tuscany was restored to the AustroLorraine dynasty; the Papal States to the pope; the kingdom of Naples to the Bourbons; while the petty state of San Marino was allowed to retain its republican form; and Monaco remained an independent principality under the Prince of Valentinois.

By the congress of Vienna, I. was again cast at the feet of the papacy and of Austria, and this at a period when progressive aspirations were strongly re-awakened in the Italian people. The system of resolute oppression adopted by the reinstated rulers speedily produced an irreconcilable hostility between themselves and their subjects, and a network of secret societies for the organisation of national resistance spread throughout the entire land. The first-fruits of their organisation were the risings of 1820 and 1821 in Piedmont and Naples, to demand constitutional rights. Austrian intervention quelled both these movements; and in 1831, when a similar rising occurred in Modena and the Roman States, it was subdued with sanguinary ferocity by an Austrian army. In these movements, no distinct tendency towards national unity is perceptible; and only on the accession of Charles Albert to the throne of Piedmont (1831) was this grand idea of modern I. propounded by Joseph Mazzini, in an address to the king, urging him to assume the rôle of liberator and leader of Italy. The king of Piedmont, by yielding in some degree to the spirit of his time, prepared for Piedmont the pre-eminence she now enjoys throughout the country. The accession of Pius IX., in 1846, seemed the inauguration of a new era for I.: a general amnesty was followed by wise, liberal measures, which were also adopted by Tuscany and Piedmont, in emulation of Rome. Naples and the other states resolutely refused every measure of reform, and by a simultaneous outbreak in Sicily and Milan in January, the great revolution of 1848 was inaugurated in Italy. The revolution of France in February imparted a strong impulse to that of I., and speedily Naples, Piedmont, and Rome conceded constitutional rights to the popular demands. The Milanese unanimously revolted against Austrian