a bad reputation.-The stems, leaves, and glumes of grasses contain a large proportion of silica, particularly the epidermis, so that when large quantities of them are burned, a sort of glass is formed; a fact which requires attention in questions relative to the manures proper for particular crops, and the most profitable alternation of crops in husbandry. The following are the tribes into which botanists have divided the natural order of Grasses, with the names of some of the most important, as examples:

Oryzec. Phalarece.

Paniceæ.

Pappophorea.

Stipea.

Agrosteæ.

Arundea.

Chlorea.

Aveneæ.

Festucece.

Hordea.

Rottbolleæ.

Rice.

Maize; Job's Tears (Coix); Canary
Grass; Foxtail Grass; Soft Grass;
Timothy Grass.
Millet (of various kinds); Fundi;

Guinea Grass.
Feather Grass; Esparto.
Bent Grass.

Reeds; Marrum Grass; Pampas Grass.

Cord Grass (Spartina); Cynodon;
Eleusine.

Oats; Vernal Grass; Aira.
Fescue; Meadow Grass; Manna Grass;
Teff; Cock's-foot Grass; Tussac
Grass; Dog's-tail Grass.
Sub-tribe Bambusida-Bamboos.

Wheat; Barley; Rye; Spelt; Rye-
grass; Lyme Grass.
Gama Grass.

Andropogoneæ. Sugar-cane; Shaloo or Sugar Grass;
Durra; Lemon Grass; Vittievayr.

The word Grass is probably from the same root as Lat. cresco, Eng. grow.

Among farmers, the term grasses is extended to include, along with the true grasses, other plants cultivated for fodder and forage, such as clover, &c., and these are distinguished by the term Artificial Grasses, whilst the true grasses are called Natural Grasses.

GRA'SSHOPPER, the English name of many species of insects, forming a family of the order Orthoptera, section Saltatoria, called Gryllida by some (chiefly English) entomologists, and Locustida by others those who adopt the former name designating the Crickets (q. v.) Achetida. Locusts (q. v.), however, do not belong to this family, although very closely allied, but are distinguished from it by greater robustness of frame, shorter legs, and shorter antennæ. The antennæ of the grasshoppers are long and threadlike, as in the crickets. The wings of grasshoppers, as of locusts, fold together like the sides of a roof, whilst those of crickets are horizontal when at rest. Grasshoppers, like crickets and locusts,

ばーは

Grasshopper, Female (Gryllus viridissimus). have the thighs of the hinder legs very large and adapted for leaping. But grasshoppers do not leap with so great energy as locusts, nor are they capable of so sustained a flight. There are, indeed, some of the family in which the wings are merely rudimental,

and the elytræ or wing-covers of small size. Most of them, however, have well-developed wings; and the wing-covers of the males, as in crickets, have a spot at the base of a talc-like appearance, by the rubbing together of which that chirping sound is produced which is probably connected with the sexual instincts of the insects, but which we have learned to associate with the brightest of green pastures and of sunshiny days. Grasshoppers are herbivorous. They are numerous in most parts of the world. The largest British species is the GREAT GREEN G. (Gryllus viridissimus, also known as Locusta viridissima and Acrida viridissima), about two inches in length, and of a fine green colour; a somewhat rare insect in Britain, although not uncommon in some parts of Europe. A green colour prevails among the grasshoppers of Britain, and generally of temperate climates, enabling them more readily to elude observation among the herbage in midst of which they live; but some of the tropical species are richly coloured, and some have very large wings, almost like those of lepidopterous insects. The greater number of grasshoppers feed on grass and the leaves of herbaceous plants, but some prefer the leaves of

trees.

GRA'SSUM, in the Law of Scotland, is a lump sum paid by persons who take a lease of landed property. In the case of entailed estates, the heir in possession is generally prohibited from taking large sums in the form of a grassum, and letting the property at a lower rent, because it tends to prejudice those who succeed him in the property. In England, the word is not used, but the word premium in some cases, and fine in others, means the same thing. Where a person is entire owner or freeholder, he is entitled to let his land at any rent he pleases, and to stipulate for a grassum as large as he can get.

GRASSWRACK (Zostera), a genus of plants of the natural order Naiades, one of the few genera of phanerogamous plants which grow amongst seaweeds at the bottom of the sea. The leaves are narrow and grass-like; and the flowers consist merely of stamens and pistils, without any perianth, inserted on the central nerve of one side of a flat thin linear spadix, with a leafy spathe. The pollen is confervoid.-The Common Grasswrack (Z. mariña) is a perennial plant, which forms green meadows on the sandy bottom of shallow parts of almost all the European seas, and abounds in creeks and salt-water ditches. It is found in great plenty on the British shores. It becomes white by exposure to the air. The rush-like coverings of Italian liquor-flasks are made of it, and it is much used for packing glass bottles and other brittle ware. It has been long used in Holland, Gothland, and Iceland for stuffing pillows and mattresses, and this use has of late years very much extended, so that the plant has become an article of commerce, under the name of Alga marina, or more commonly, but incorrectly, Alva marina (Ger. See-gras).

GRATE, the iron cage which supports the coal for a common fire. Considerable improvements have been made of late years in the construction of common domestic grates. Our forefathers simply added an iron cage to the old form of fireplace built originally for burning a pile of wood. This was a large square-sided recess, with a very wide opening for the chimney. Count Rumford pointed out the disadvantages of this, and the principles upon which they should be remedied. See CHIMNEY. In the modern grate, the filling up of the square cavity recommended by Count Rumford, and also his plan of lowering and narrowing the throat of the chimney, are usually effected by iron plates forming part of

the grate. These plates are readily heated, and with equal readiness radiate and reflect the heat into the room, and thereby effect a considerable saving of coal, besides which the grate itself is brought forward level with, or even projecting beyond, the walls of the room, whereby the radiation from the heated coal is utilised to the utmost. One of the most effective as well as elegant forms of grate is that which consists simply of a large square iron plate set nearly flush with the wall, in the middle of which is a hemispherical cavity with bowed bars in front, and a trapped opening into the chimney in the upper part of this cavity. When there is a fair draught, this form of grate gives a good fire, and effects the maximum economy of fuel for an open fireplace (which of course is always somewhat wasteful compared with a stove). The curved surface behind and above the fire radiates and reflects into the room from every part of its surface, and the plate flush with the wall, which is heated by conduction, may be regarded as a part of the room, and thus the main condition of economy is effected, viz., throwing as much as possible of the heat into the room, and allowing as little as possible to go up the chimney. A lining of firebrick or of fireclay, moulded to the form of the back of the grate, is useful in retaining the heat which is necessary for complete combustion of coal; the firebrick, being a bad conductor and an excellent radiator, becomes red-hot on its surface next to the coal, and this heat is not carried away, but is radiated into the fire, and assists in burning the carbon of the smoke. The conditions for securing an effective draught are treated under CHIMNEY.

GRATIAN, the collector of the well-known body of canon law which is commonly cited under It is singular, however, that although few authorities have been so frequently cited, or have obtained so wide and permanent acceptance as this celebrated collection, hardly anything is known of the collector's own personal history. The sum of our knowledge regarding him is, that he was a native of Chiusa in Tuscany, and that he became, in later life, a Benedictine monk of the monastery of St Felix in Bologna. The date commonly assigned to G.'s collection is 1141 or 1151; its title, however, Decretum, or Concordia Discordantium Canon, is believed to

the title of Decretum Gratiani.

be of later origin. How far the collection is the work of G. himself, or how far he was indebted for his materials, and even for their arrangement, to the labours of earlier collectors, it is difficult

to determine. The work consists not only of the decrees of councils and popes down to Innocent II. (including the spurious ISIDORIAN DECRETALS, q. v.), but also of passages from the Scripture, from the Fathers, and even from the Roman law. It is divided into three parts. The first regards the hierarchical constitution of the church, and chiefly relates to doctrinal and moral subjects. It is divided into distinctions.' The second treats of external jurisdiction, under the head of 'causes' and 'questions.' The third regards the inner life of the church-the liturgy and the sacraments. From what has been already said regarding his adoption of the Isidorian decretals, it will be inferred that in point of criticism G.'s authority is of little value, and, in general, it may be added that no authority is given to any document beyond what it intrinsically possesses, from the fact of its being placed in G.'s collection. For the other collectors of the canon law, see CANON LAW. The date of G.'s death is unknown.

GRATIANUS, AUGUSTUS, eldest son of Valentinian L, by his first wife Severa, was born at

Sirmium in Pannonia, on the 19th of April 359 A. D. While he was still nobilissimus puer (or heirapparent), he was created consul, and in 367, was elevated by his father to the rank of Augustus at Ambiani, or Amiens, in Gaul. In the following year, he accompanied his father in his expedition against the Alemanni, in order that he might be accustomed to warfare. On the death of Valentinian, the troops elevated G. to the throne, giving him at the same time as a colleague his half-brother Valentinian II. Gaul, Spain, and Britain fell to G.'s share; and as his brother was only four years old, G. is supposed by many authorities to have been the monarch de facto of the rest of the Western Empire, fixing his residence at Treviri (now Treves). During the first part of his reign, a fierce warfare was carried on against the tribes who possessed the Danubian provinces and Illyricum; and he was on the point of marching into Thrace, to assist his uncle Valens against the Goths, when he was suddenly called upon to defend his dominions against the Lentienses, a tribe of the Alemanni. After the invaders had been defeated, G. advanced towards the Eastern Empire, but while on the way, he learned that his uncle Valens had been defeated and killed by the Goths near Adrianople (August 378). reignty of the Eastern Empire then devolved upon G., but feeling his inadequacy to the task of ruling the whole empire, he recalled Theodosius (q. v.) from Spain, and appointed him his colleague on the 19th January 379. G. possessed some admirable virtues: he was pious, chaste, and temperate; his understanding was well cultivated, although not character was too yielding and pliant, and he was strong, and his eloquence attractive. consequently often led to the commission of gross acts of cruelty and tyranny, utterly foreign to his nature. His persecution of the pagans, and afterwards of heretic Christians, made him a great favourite with orthodox ecclesiastics, but rather alienated the affections of his subjects generally, while his fondness for frivolous amusements, and unworthy associates, excited the contempt of the army, so that when Maximus was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain, crowds of the disaffected flocked to his standard. G. was defeated by him near Paris, and afterwards fled to Lyon, where he Maximus had sent in pursuit of him, on the 25th was overtaken and killed by Andragathius, whom August 383.

The sove

But his

GRATI'OLA, a genus of plants of the natural order Scrophularinea, having a 5-partite calyx, the upper lip of the corolla bifid, the lower trifid, only G. officinalis, sometimes called HEDGE HYSSOP, is two stamens fertile, and the anthers pendulous. found in meadows and on the margins of ponds Britain. It has sessile lanceolate serrulated leaves, and river-banks in most parts of Europe, but not in and axillary solitary flowers. It is extremely bitter, acts violently as a purgative, diuretic, and emetic; and in overdoses is an acrid poison. It is admin istered in cases of worms, jaundice, dropsy, scrofula, mania, and venereal diseases; but requires to be used with caution. It is said to render some of the Swiss meadows useless as pastures. It was formerly so highly esteemed as a medicine, that the name of Gratia Dei (Grace of God) was given to it, and for the same reason it is known in France as Herbe au Pauvre Homme (Poor Man's Herb). It is said to be the basis of the famous gout medicine called Eau medicinale.-G. Peruviana, a South American species, has somewhat similar properties. These properties are supposed to depend upon a bitter resinous principle called Gratioline,

GRATTAN, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE HENRY, was born in Dublin 3d July 1746. His father was recorder and M.P. for that city until his death in 1766. The year after that event, having completed his university studies with distinction at Trinity College, Dublin, G. entered as a student of law at the Middle Temple, London, where, however, he neglected the pages of Blackstone, to listen to the living oratory of parliament, and in particular of Lord Chatham. In 1772, he was called to the Irish bar, and in 1775 was returned to the Irish parliament as representative for the borough of Charlemont, for which he sat until 1790, when he was elected as one of the representatives of the city of Dublin, to such an extent had his patriotism and eloquence recommended him to the Irish people. Mainly to him was owing, among other things, the partial abolition of the heavy restrictions on Irish commerce. But his popularity ebbed as it had flowed (and oftener than once) in the hearts and huzzas of his impulsive and therefore inconstant countrymen. In 1797, he declined to come forward for Dublin, and went into temporary but undeserved eclipse. In 1800, he was returned for the borough of Wicklow, to oppose the Union, and that was to fight for the people's idea of the constitution. But the union was effected in spite of him, and in 1805 he was returned to the imperial parliament for the borough of Malton, in Yorkshire. Next year, he was induced to stand for Dublin, and was re-elected. He sat for it in successive parliaments till his death, which happened on 4th June 1820, in London, to which he had gone when in a weak state of health, contrary to the advice of his physicians, to advocate, as he had been wont, the cause of Catholic emancipation.

G.'s public and private character was unimpeachable. For the vacillations of his popularity in Ireland, his countrymen had reason to be ashamed, and it is certain that he now holds a proper and exalted place in the esteem of the people, for whom he laboured with such sincerity, integrity, and genius. The history of his life is in great measure the history of the Irish constitution, and entirely the history of the parliament of Ireland. The history of his Life and Times, in four volumes, has been published by his son.

As an orator, he stands in the first rank. His style is full of point, rapidity, antithesis, and poetic suggestiveness. His eulogy on Chatham, and his invective against Bonaparte, are not surpassed in British eloquence. Byron declares him to be an

orator

With all that Demosthenes wanted, endowed, And his rival or master in all he possessed.

in Austria, is a picturesque old town, built on both sides of the Mur, and encircled by fine gardens and pleasure-grounds. It is 140 miles south-south-west of Vienna, by the Vienna and Trieste Railway. The population, including the garrison, is 63,176. The inner town, which is connected with the suburb on the western side of the river by two chain and two wooden bridges, is surrounded by walls and by a promenade (formerly the glacis) shaded with trees, has narrow and crooked streets, and is not remarkable for cleanliness. It is worthy of notice, however, from the number of old buildings which it contains, as the cathedral of St Agidi, built in the 14th c.; the ancient castle of the Styrian dukes, which possesses many curious relics of antiquity; the Landhaus, where the nobles of the duchy held their meetings; the university, founded in 1585, with its library containing 50,000 volumes; its museum, &c., the arsenal, and various palaces belonging to the Styrian nobility. G. is well provided with gymnasia and other public educational establishments for the laity, and seminaries for the clergy. As the seat of government for the circle, G. has special courts of law and administration, and is a place of considerable importance. It has important manufactures of steel and iron wares, cotton, linen, and woollen fabrics, leather, paper, saltpetre, &c. From its position on the direct line of railway-communication between Vienna and Trieste, it is favourably situated as an intermediary station for the trade of the Austrian capital and the Adriatic provinces; and the general amenities of G. have gained for it from the witty French the designation of 'la ville de Grâces sur la rivière de l'Amour' (la ville de Grätz sur la rivière de la Mur).

GRAU'DENZ, an old town and important fortress of Prussia, in the province of West Prussia, stands on the right bank of the Vistula, 60 miles in direct line south of Danzig. A bridge of boats, 2780 feet in length, here crosses the river. G. contains numerous seminaries and educational establishments. It carries on a trade in corn and tobacco, and manufactures of woollens and cottons, &c. The town is fortified by a wall; and about a mile north of it on a hill, and in a position that commands the course of the Vistula, is the bombproof fortress of Graudenz. Pop. 11,136, including a garrison of 1888.

GRAU'WACKE. See GREYWACKE

GRAVE ROBBING. The offence of taking up dead bodies has often been attempted to be declared felony by act of parliament; but it is only a misdemeanour, punishable by fine and imprisonment. If, however, the shroud, coffin, or any

GRATUITOUS DEED, in the Law of Scotland, means a deed granted without any value received. If it is made in favour of a third party, in order to defeat creditors, it is null and void, by stat. 1621 c. 18. There is this peculiarity, also, that when a person is too generous, and contracts voluntarily to give away property at a future period, if he become destitute in the meantime, the court will, at least where the deed was in favour of children or

grandchildren, retain sufficient for his own subsistence. This is in imitation of the Roman law as to beneficium competentie, but the Roman law went further. Such a provision is wholly unknown in England. In England, gratuitous deeds are usually styled Gifts (q. v.) or Voluntary Conveyances (q. V.), according to circumstances.

GRÄTZ, the capital of the crown-land of Styria,

from the grave, the party may be indicted for felony in stealing these. See ANATOMY (in Law).

GRAVE STONES. The right to grant or refuse permission to erect grave stones, tombs, or monuments in the church or churchyard, in England, is vested in the ordinary, who is generally the bishop. In Scotland, a similar power is vested in the heritors, i. e., the proprietors of the lands in the parish.

GRAVEL, the name given to aggregations varying in size from a pea to a hen's egg. When the of water-worn and rounded fragments of rocks, fragments are smaller, the deposit is sand; when larger, it is called shingle. Beds of gravel occur in formations of every age. have been a long time in being prepared, and have While the materials travelled perhaps a great distance from the motherrock, gravel deposits have been formed speedily and by the action of a strong current of water. They

sun.

Before, however, the argument on the extension of terrestrial gravity to the sphere of the moon could have become pregnant with so great a result, much investigation had to take place in other fields; and, in fact, Newton had, previously to conceiving the law, explained the three great Keplerian laws of order obtaining in the solar system by reference to an attractive force residing in the These laws are--1. That the planets revolve round the sun in ellipses, having the sun for a common focus: 2. That every planet moves in such a way that the line drawn from it to the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal times: 3. That the squares of the times occupied by the several planets in their revolutions in their elliptic orbits, are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from their common focus, the sun. From the law of equal areas, Newton inferred that every planet is retained in its orbit by a force of attraction directed towards the centre of the sun; from the orbits being ellip tical, he inferred that in each case this force varies in intensity according to the inverse square of the bodies' distance from the sun; while from the third law he inferred the homogeneity of the central force throughout the solar system. It was then, after being familiar with the notion of terrestrial gravity, and its action, through the researches of Galileo, Huyghens, and Hooke, and with the notion of a central force acting inversely as the square of the distance of its object, through his explanations of the laws of Kepler, that he put to himself the question: Is not the force with which the moon gravitates to the earth the same with gravity?--the force which causes a stone to fall on its surface. A question answered affirmatively on the supposition of gravity, like the sun's attraction, being a force diminishing with increase of distance, and according to the same law. The result was to bring the whole solar system, the planets and the sun, and satellites and their planets-the satellites being observed to obey the same laws of order with reference to their primaries that the latter obeyed in reference to the sun--under the law of gravitation. And the imagination lifted up by the grandeur of the conception, would refuse to limit the operation of that law to our own system, were there no facts to entitle us to extend it beyond. The phenomena of double stars, however, of themselves justify the extension and the statement of the law as we have given it in universal terms. It may be observed, in conclusion, that the Keplerian laws, which may be said to have been the basis of Newton's researches, are, owing to perturbations caused by the mutual action of the planets, &c., only approximately correct; and that these perturbations afford, when examined, a further proof of the truth and universality of the law of gravitation.

For a notice of speculations as to the nature of the law of gravitation, see FORCE; see also FALLING BODIES, PROJECTILES, &c.

GRAVITY, SPECIFIC. See SPECIFIC GRAVITY. GRAY, a small town of France, in the department of Haute-Saône, is situated on the slope of a hill overlooking a beautiful meadow, on the left bank of the Saône, 26 miles west-north-west of Besançon. It is commanded by the remains of an ancient castle, the residence in former times of the Dukes of Burgundy, and has a pleasing appearance from a distance, although its streets are crooked, narrow, and steep. G. is an important entrepôt for goods from the north-eastern districts of France, which are conveyed by the Saône to the south. Its trade is chiefly in corn, flour, timber, wine, iron, and colonial produce. Pop. 6188.

GRAY, JOHN EDWARD, a distinguished living naturalist, who for more than thirty years has been connected with the British Museum. Profiting by the advantages which his position has afforded him, he has probably described and classified a larger number of animals than any other naturalist. In 1852, the date of the publication of the Bibliography of Zoology and Geology, by the Ray Society, his papers, memoirs, and books amounted to 425, and we may now place them at about 500. Among his works on natural history generally, may be noticed the Zoological Miscellany (1835–1845), which includes descriptions of numerous animals; his Spicelegia Zoologica (1828-1830); his Synopsis of the Contents of the British Museum (1840); and his Gleanings from the Menagerie and Aviary at Knowsley Hall (1846-1850). Amongst his contributions to mammalian zoology, may be mentioned his catalogues of the Ruminantia and Cetacea in the British Museum, and his 'Description of some New Genera and fifty unrecorded Species of Mammalia,' published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. The mammals collected in King's survey of the coast of Australia, and in the voyages of the Erebus and Terror, and of the Samarang, were also described by him. In the list of his memoirs, &c., already referred to, upwards of 100 are devoted to this class. His papers upon birds are comparatively few (twenty-nine); he seems to have left them to his brother, GEORGE ROBERT GRAY, who superintends this department of the Museum, and who is well known as the author of The Genera of Birds, and of various Museum catalogues of this class. His contributions to herpetology have been extensive and very valuable, and upwards of 60 of his papers are devoted to the classification of reptiles, to the description of new species, or to the consideration of their structure and habits. On the mollusca, his memoirs, in 1852, amounted to 119, and many have since been added. In this department, he has been admirably assisted by Mrs Gray, whose Figures of Molluscous Animals for the Use of Students are accompanied by his descriptions. Upwards of 70 papers have been devoted to the Articulata (crustaceans, insects, &c.) and to the Radiata (star-fishes, sea-eggs, &c.). He has thus been an active contributor to almost every department of zoology.

GRAY, THOMAS, an English poet, was born in London on the 26th December 1716. His father, Philip Gray, a money-scrivener, was of a dispo sition so violent, that his wife was obliged to separate from him; and it was mainly through her exertions that her son was placed at Eton, and afterwards at Cambridge. At Eton, he made the acquaintance of Horace Walpole, the son of the prime minister; and when his college education was completed, he accompanied his friend on a tour through France and Italy. After spending a year in the search of the picturesque and in the exploration of picture-galleries, the friends quarrelled, and G. returned to England, and went to Cambridge to take his degree in civil law. At the university, the greater portion of his life was spent, breathing the serene air of noble libraries, and corresponding with friends, as only the men of that day could correspond. In 1756, in consequence of a practical joke, he removed from St Peter's College to Pembroke Hall. He had a just appreciation of the natural beauty of his native country, and rambled in Scotland, Wales, and the English lake counties. He made notes wherever he went, and wrote copious descriptions of what he had seen to his literary friends. He published his Ode to Eton College in 1747, and his Elegy written in a Country Churchyard two years afterwards. His Pindaric Odes appeared in 1757; but however much they might dazzle the