be mentioned those of Ramsden, Troughton, Simms, and Ross. A detailed account of the construction of these would far exceed our limits. Their principal parts consist of a large circle divided with extreme care by original graduation. This wheel is racked on its edge with teeth as equal and accurate as the divisions; a very carefully constructed endless screw works in these teeth, and is moved through any given number of revolutions, or any measured fraction of a revolution, by means of a treadle or other suitable power, thus making the requisite steps for each division; another part of the machine cutting a fine line at the moment of the halt of each step.

These divisions are cut upon an arc of silver, gold, or platinum, which is soldered or inlaid upon the limb of the instrument, the precious metals being used, on account of the oxidation to which common metals are liable.

GRÆCIA, MAGNA. See MAGNA GRÆCIA. GRAF, the German equivalent for Count (q. v.), Comte, Comes, and for our Earl (q. v.). The etymology of the word is disputed, but the most probable conjecture seems to be that it springs from the same root with the modern German rafen and the Anglo-Saxon reafan, to snatch or carry off hastily; and also with our words rere, greve, and the last syllable of sheriff. If this view be correct, the graf, in all probability, was originally a fiscal officer, whose duty it was to collect the revenue of a district. The title first appears in the lex salica (compiled in the 5th c.), under the Latinised form of Grafo; at a later period, the office is often designated by the Latin equivalent of Comes. Charlemagne divided his whole kingdom into grafel districts (Grafengaue) or counties, each of which was presided over by a graf. The people were in the habit of appointing a representative called the Cent-graf to attend to their interests with the graf, and probably, if necessary, to appeal from his decisions to the central government. Then there was the Stall-graf, or stable-graf; the Comes Stabuli, or constable of later times; the Pfalz-graf (Comes Palatii), who presided in the domestic court of the monarch, which as such was the highest court in the realm; the Send-graf, who was sent as an extraordinary deputy of the king to control the ordinary gau-grafen; and lastly, the Mark-graf, or marquis, on whom the important duty of defending the border-lands devolved. When feudal offices became hereditary, and the power of the princes of the empire, secular and ecclesiastical, developed itself, the graf gradually ceased to be an officer possessed of real power, and became merely a titled noble. In Germany, in modern times, there are two classes of grafs: those who are representatives of the old grafel families, who held sovereign jurisdiction immediately under the crown (landeshoheit), and who still belong to the higher nobility, their chief taking the title Erlaucht (Illustrious); and those who form the highest class of the lower nobility. The former is a very small, the latter, an extremely numerous class of persons.

GRA FENBERG, a little village in Austrian Silesia, is an extension of the town of Freiwaldau towards the north, and is celebrated as the spot where the water-cure (see HYDROPATHY) was introduced about the year 1828 by Priestnitz. The village is situated at an elevation of 1200 feet above the level of the Baltic Sea; the climate is inclement, and the vegetation scanty. It extends from the valley, half way up the Gräfenberge. The lodgings for visitors are partly in the buildings connected with the baths, partly scattered on the declivity of the hill, or in Freiwaldau.

GRAFFITI (Ital. graffito, a scratching), a class of ancient inscriptions to which attention has recently been called, and of which several collections have been made, or are in progress. The graffito is a rude scribbling or scratching with a stylus, or other sharp instrument, on the plaster of a wall, a pillar, or a door-post. Such scribblings are pretty commonly found on the substructions of Roman ruins, as in the Golden House of Nero, the palace of the Caesars and the Palatine, and in still greater numbers in Pompeii and in the Roman catacombs. Their literary value, of course, is very slight; but as illustrating the character and habits of a certain class of the ancient Romans, and what may be called the 'street-life' of the classic period, they are deserving of study. A small selection of Pompeiian graffiti was published in 1837 by Dr Wordsworth; but the most complete, or, at all events, the most popular collection, is that of Padre Garrucci, a Neapolitan Jesuit, which was published in Paris in Roman ruins, but they are commonly in Latin, and 1856. Greek graffiti occasionally are found upon in a few instances at Pompeii, in the ancient Oscan. A few specimens may not be uninteresting.

Some of them are idle scribblings, such as we may suppose some loiterer to indite at the present day; thus, some lounger at the door of a wineshop at Pompeii amuses himself by scratching on the door-post the tavern-keeper's name--Taberna Appii (Appius's Tavern'), fig. 1. In other cases, we

at Rome, and some of them are of a most interesting character. One discovered by Father Garrucci in 1856, in a subterranean chamber of the palace of the Cæsars, possesses a strange and truly awful interest, as a memorial of the rude early conflicts of paganism with the rising Christian creed. It is no other than a pagan caricature of the Christian worship of our Lord on the cross, and contains a Greek inscription descriptive of one Alexamenus as engaged in worshipping God. The chamber in which it was found appears to have been a waiting-room for slaves and others of inferior grade.

The graffiti of the catacombs are almost all sepulchral, and are full of interest as illustrating early Christian life and doctrine. See for the whole subject the Edinburgh Review, vol. cx. pp. 411 -437.

GRAFTING, the uniting of a young shoot (scion) of one kind of plant to a stem (stock) of another kind, so that the scion may receive nourishment from the stock. Grafting has been practised from ancient times, as may be seen from passages in the New Testament, and in Virgil and other Latin classics; although it cannot be certainly traced to a more remote antiquity; and its introduction among the Chinese is ascribed to Roman Catholic missionaries. It is a most important part of the art of gardening, and is practised for various purposes, but chiefly for the perpetuation and propagation of the finest varieties of fruit-trees, which could not be accomplished by seed, and is accomplished by grafting more rapidly and easily than by layers or cuttings. Besides this, however, grafting is of great use in hastening and increasing the fruitfulness of fruittrees; the circulation of the sap being impeded at the junction of the stock and scion-as by a deep wound, removal of bark or the like-more particularly when there is a considerable difference between the stock and scion; and repeated grafting (technically, working) is often resorted to by gardeners to obtain flowers and fruit much sooner than would naturally be the case. Grafting is also employed to turn to account the vigour of a root and stem of which the branches are exhausted or otherwise unproductive, and large crops of fruit may often be thus obtained in a garden, much sooner than by any other means.

In grafting, it is particularly to be attended to that the Alburnum (q. v.) of the scion is brought into contact with that of the stock. The hard wood of the one never unites with that of the other, remaining separate and marking the place of the operation even in the oldest trees. For scions or grafts, pieces of about six to eight inches long are generally taken from the shoots of the previous summer, with several buds, but portions of shoots of two years old are sometimes successfully employed. The time for grafting is in spring, as soon as the sap begins to appear. The scion should, if possible, be taken from a healthy and fruitful tree, but scions from the extremities of lateral branches are more likely to become speedily fruitful than those from the uppermost branches, where growth is most vigorous. The scion should be kept for a few days before grafting, so that the stock may rather exceed it, not only in vigour, but in the progress of its spring growth; and for this purpose may be placed in the ground, in a rather dry soil, sheltered from the direct rays of the sun. Scions may be kept for some time, and easily carried to a distance, by sticking their lower end into a potato. The end should always be freshly cut off when the scion is to be used. There are various modes of grafting. Cleft-grafting (fig. 1) is very commonly practised when the stock is very considerably thicker than the scion. The stock

being cut over, is cleft down, and the graft, cut into the shape of a wedge at its lower end by a sharp thin knife, is inserted into the cleft. This mode of grafting is particularly applicable to branches of large

Fig. 1.-Cleft-grafting.

trees, when the introduction of a new variety of fruit, or increased fruitfulness, is sought.-Crowngrafting is used for still thicker stocks, which are cut across, and then cleft down by two clefts crossing one another at right angles, two scions being inserted close to the bark in each cleft; or no cleft at all is made, and any desired number of scions obliquely cut away on one side are simply inserted between the bark and wood of the stock, the operation in this case being deferred till the bark readily parts from the wood. In this kind of grafting, a longitudinal slit in the bark of the stock, opposite to each graft, is advantageous. TongueFig. 2. grafting (tig. 2) is the a, tongue grafting; b, cleft graftmode most commonly ing; e, tongue-grafting (sidepractised for young trees in nurseries. For this, it is necessary that the stock and the scion should be of not very different thickness. A slit or a very narrow angular incision is made in the centre of the stock downwards, and a similar one in the scion upwards, both having been first cut obliquely, at corresponding angles, and the tongue thus made in the scion being inserted into the incision in the stock, they are fastened very closely and thoroughly together.-In Saddlegrafting, the end of the stock is cut into the form of a wedge, and the scion is affixed to it, the base of the scion having been cut or slit up for the purpose.Shoulder-grafting (fig. 3), used chiefly for ornamental trees, is performed by cutting

grafting) as practised in wall trees to fill up vacancies, without cutting over the head of the stock.

obliquely, and then Fig. 3.-Shoulder-grafting. cutting across a small

part at top of the stock, so as to form a shoulder, the scion being cut to fit it.-Peg-grafting, not now

much in use, is accomplished by making the end of the scion into a peg, and boring the top of the stock to receive it.

Whichever of these modes of grafting is adopted, the graft must be fastened in its place by tying, for which purpose a strand of bast-matting is commonly used. The access of air is further prevented by means of clay, which has been worked up with a little chopped hay, horse or cow dung, and water, and which is applied to the place of junction so as to form a ball, tapering both upwards and downwards. In France, a composition of 28 parts black pitch, 28 Burgundy pitch, 16 yellow wax, 14 tallow, and 14 sifted ashes, is generally used instead of clay. Gutta-percha, applied in a soft state, has also been used, or even blotting-paper held fast by stripes of sticking-plaster. The progress of the buds shews the union of the graft and stock, but it is not generally safe to remove the clay in less than three months; and the ligatures, although then loosened, are allowed to remain for some time longer. From some kinds of fruittrees, fruit is often obtained in the second year after grafting.

Budding (q. v.) is in principle the same as grafting; and Flute-grafting is a kind of budding in which a ring of bark is used instead of a single bud, and a stock of similar thickness having been cut over, a ring of bark is removed, and the foreign one substituted. This is commonly performed in spring, when the bark parts readily, and is one of the surest modes of grafting.--Inarching (q. v.), or grafting by approach, in which the scion is not cut off from its parent stem until it is united to the new stock, is practised chiefly in the case of some valuable shrubs kept in pots, in which success by the ordinary methods is very doubtful.

An effect is produced by the stock on the scion which it nourishes analogous to that of a change of soil; much of the vigour of a strong healthy stock is also communicated to a scion taken even from an aged tree. There is, moreover, in some degree, an influence of the elaborated sap descending from the scion on the stock which supports it. An important part of the practical skill of the gardener or nurseryman consists in the selection of the proper kinds of stocks for different species and varieties of fruit-trees. The stock and scion, however, must not be of species extremely dissimilar. No credit is due to the statements of ancient authors about vines grafted on fig-trees, apples on planes, &c., the semblance of which can only have been brought about by some delusive artifice; for all attempts at grafting fail except among plants of the same genus, or at least of the same natural family.

Herbaceous plants with firm stems, as dahlias, are sometimes grafted. Some kinds of plants, of small size, in pots, are placed in moist hothouses or hotbeds, under bell-glasses, whilst the junction of the scion and stock is going on, which in these circumstances takes place very surely and very expeditiously. But an accumulation of too much moisture under the bell-glass must be guarded against.

GRAHAM, FAMILY OF. See MONTROSE.

In

He

He was

GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE, of Netherby, Cumberland, statesman, eldest son of Sir James, the first baronet, by Lady C. Stewart, eldest daughter of the seventh Earl of Galloway, was born June 1, 1792. The Grahams of Netherby are a junior branch of the Grahams of Esk, Viscounts of Preston, descended from the Earls of Stratherne and Menteith. G. was educated at Westminster School, whence he proceeded to Queen's College, Cambridge. He afterwards became private secretary to Lord Montgomerie, the British minister in Sicily, during the most critical period of the war and the entire management of the mission devolved upon him at a most important moment, in consequence of the illness of his chief. On the arrival of Lord W. Bentinck, he was continued in his post, and he afterwards accepted a military situation attached to the person of Lord William, who was commanderin-chief in the Mediterranean. He was sent in this capacity to Murat, with whom, at Naples, he nego. tiated the armistice which separated that general from Napoleon. In 1818, he was returned for Hull on Whig principles; but at the next election, in 1820, lost his seat, and some years elapsed before he re-entered parliament. In 1824, he succeeded to the baronetcy on the death of his father. 1826, he was returned for Carlisle as a Whig, and a warm supporter of Catholic emancipation. displayed so much ability in opposition, that Earl Grey offered him, in 1830, the post of First Lord of the Admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. also one of the committee of the cabinet appointed to discuss and settle the provisions of the first Reform Bill. He was at this time very popular with the extreme liberal party, and was supposed to be, of all the members of the Grey cabinet, most favourable to radical changes. In 1834, he seceded from the government, with Mr Stanley, on the appropriation clause of the Irish Church Temporalities Act. He refused to join the Peel administration in that year, but gradually in opposition approximated to the politics of that statesman; and in 1841 became Secretary of State for the Home Department in the government of Sir Robert Peel, who on one occasion declared that G. was the ablest administrator and the best man of business he had ever known. In 1844, he issued a warrant for opening the letters of Mazzini, and caused the information thus obtained to be communicated to the Austrian minister, an act by which the ministry, and G. in particular, incurred great obloquy. He also encountered great displeasure north of the Tweed by his high-handed method of dealing with the Scottish Church during the troubles which ended, contrary to his anticipation, in the Disrup tion, and the formation of the Free Church. gave Peel a warm support in carrying the Corn Law Repeal Bill, and resigned office with his chief as soon as that great measure was carried. On the death of Peel in 1850, he became leader of the Peelite party in the Lower House, and led the opposition to the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill. In December 1852, he took office in the Coalition Ministry of the Earl of Aberdeen, and accepted his old office of First Lord of the Admiralty. This was a post much below his talents and pretensions, but he held it until February 1855. G. refused to take office either in the first or second administration of Lord Palmerston, but he gave that minister a general support. He died from disease of the heart, October 25, 1861. When the House of Commons again met, it felt that it had lost one who stood in the first rank of statesmen. His commanding stature, fine personal presence, his

GRAGNA'NO, a town of 10,470 inhabitants, in the province of Naples, two miles south-east of Castellamare, is situated on the flank of Mount Gaurano, from which it is said to have derived its name. The origin of this town dates from the great eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A. D., when the inhabitants of Stabia, in dread of the vicinity of the volcano, fled from their dwellings, and sought refuge on the mountain of Gaurano. G. lies in a beautifully picturesque neighbourhood, which produces excellent wines, and has good macaroni manufactories.

He

that city. He removed to Edinburgh in 1784, where he commenced the study of law under the tuition of a relative, and was admitted a member

of the Society of Writers to the Signet in 1791, and in 1795, of the Faculty of Advocates. Finding the legal profession unsuited to his tastes, and having a sufficiency of worldly means, he withdrew from professional practice, and devoted himself to the cultivation of his muse. He had long regarded the life and duties of a country clergyman with a wistful eye, and an opportunity offering, he took orders in the Church of England, being ordained by the Bishop of Norwich on Trinity Sunday, the 28th May 1809. He was successively curate of Shipton in Gloucestershire, and of Sedgefield in the county of Durham. Ill health compelled him to abandon his sacred duties, and he returned to Scotland; spending a few days in Edinburgh, he proceeded to Glasgow, and died at his brother's residence, near that city, on the 14th September 1811, in the forty-seventh year of his age.

G. has left behind several poetical works, the chief of which are-Mary Queen of Scots, a dramatic poem; The Sabbath; The Birds of Scotland; and The British Georgics. It is on The Sabbath that his fame rests. He was a retiring, amiable, and affectionate man, and possessed a deep love for nature, and those passages in his poems are the best that give utterance to that love. There was nothing bold or mounting in his genius, but he had a plenteous command of musical verse and rural imagery.

GRAHAME'S or HOTHAM'S ISLAND. A mass of dust, sand, and scoria thrown out of a submarine volcano in the Mediterranean, and which remained for some time above the surface of the water, received these names. It made its appearance about thirty miles off the coast of Sicily, opposite to Sciacca, in July 1831. In the beginning of August, when the action of the voleano had ceased, it had a circumference of about a mile and a quarter, the highest point was estimated at 170 feet above the sea, and the inner diameter of the crater about 400 yards. As soon as the eruption ceased, the action of the waves began to reduce the island, and before many months transpired, the whole mass of scoria and sand disappeared, being scattered as a stratum of volcanic cinder in that portion of the bed of

the Mediterranean.

GRAHAM'S LAND, an island of the Antarctic Ocean, discovered by Biscoe in February 1832, lies in lat. 64 45' S., and long. 63° 51′ W., being nearly on the meridian of the east extremity of Tierra del Fuego, and within a comparatively short distance of the polar circle. The position, as above defined, is precisely that of Mount William, the highest spot In front, towards the north, are a number of islets, called Biscoe's Range. No living thing, excepting a few birds, appears to exist.

seen.

GRAHAM'S TOWN, the capital of the eastern province of the Cape Colony, stands near the centre of the maritime division of Albany. It is about 25 miles from the sea, in lat. 33° 19' S., and long. 26° 31 E.; and it contains about 5000 inhabitants, chiefly English. G. T. is the see of two bishops -one of the Church of England, and another of the Church of Rome. It has also several Wesleyan ministers, besides the pastors of the Dutch Reformed Church. Among the other institutions of the place are its banks, insurance offices, a botanic garden, a public library, a general hospital, and some weekly

newspapers.

GRAIN (Lat. granum, any small hard seed or particle), a term often used as equivalent to corn, denoting the seeds of the Cerealia.

found it in the Mersey. It occurs in a few English streams, and in some of the lakes of Switzerland. It is rather more slender than the dace. In its habits and food it resembles the trout, rises readily at the artificial fly, and affords good sport to the angler.

GRAINS OF PARADISE, or MELEGUETTA PEPPER, an aromatic and extremely hot and pungent seed, imported from Guinea. It is the produce of Amomum Meleguetta, or A. Grana Paradisi, a plant of the natural order Scitamineæ or Zingiberacea, with lanceolate leaves, one-flowered scapes (leafless stems), about three feet high, and ovate or ellipticoblong capsules containing many seeds. By the natives of Africa, these seeds are used as a spice or condiment to season their food; in Europe, they are chiefly employed as a medicine in veterinary practice, and fraudulently to increase the pungency of fermented and spirituous liquors. By 56 Geo. III. c. 58, brewers and dealers in beer in England are prohibited, under a heavy penalty, from even having grains of paradise in their possession. This drug is much used to give apparent strength to bad gin. The name Meleguetta Pepper, or Guinea Pepper (q. v.), is also given to other pungent seeds

from the west of Africa.

Numerous

GRAKLE, the common name of many birds of the Starling family (Sturnida), all tropical or subtropical. They have very much the habits of starlings, and some of them even excel starlings in their imitative powers, and particularly in the imitation of human speech. This is remarkably the case with the Mina Birds (q. v.) of the East Indies, which may be regarded as grakles. species inhabit Africa. Some of them are birds of splendid plumage. The PARADISE G. (Gracula gryllivora) of India has acquired a peculiar celebrity as a destroyer of locusts and caterpillars. It is about the size of a blackbird. Buffon tells us, that in order to stop the devastations of locusts in the island of Bourbon, this bird was introduced from India by the government. The grakles, however, beginning to examine the newly-sown fields, excited the alarm of the planters, and were exterminated; but it was found necessary, after a few years, again to introduce them, and they are now very numerous, although they do not confine themselves to insect food, but in default of it are ready to betake themselves to seeds and fruits. They sometimes enter pigeon-houses and feed on the eggs, or even on the newly-hatched young. When tamed, they become very pert and familiar, and exhibit a great aptitude for imitating the voices of animals. A G. of