time of the Commonwealth, in which Cromwell's character is vindicated. Her other works rapidly followed-Tales of Woman's Trials, in 1834; The Outlaw, a novel of the reign of James II., in 1835; The French Refugee, a drama, which in 1836 was acted for about fifty nights at the St James's Theatre, London; Uncle Horace, 3 vols. 1837; Lights and Shadows of Irish Character, 1838; Marian, or a Young Maid's Trials, 1839; The Whiteboy, 1845, &c. Her Stories of the Irish Peasantry appeared originally in Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, and were afterwards published in a collected form. She is also the authoress of a graceful fairy tale of love, Midsummer Eve, originally contributed to the Art Journal, and of a pleasant illustrated series of descriptive sketches, inserted in the same publication, and subsequently published separately under the title of Pilgrimages to English Shrines. The last two, with some others of her writings, have been translated into German. Besides assisting her husband in his illustrated work on Ireland, she has furnished numerous contributions to the periodicals of the day, and written various books for the young. Of these, Uncle Sam's Money-box is one of the best.

HALL, the large principal apartment of the castles and dwelling-houses of the middle ages. The hall is of very ancient origin. The earliest

Saxon buildings we have any record of are the palaces of the kings, and these seem to have consisted of one large hall, in which the king, his courtiers or hearth-men,' and all his retainers dwelt together, eating at the same table, and sitting round the same fire; and one other chamber, in which the king and his hearth-men slept, while his retainers slept in the hall. The Normans built their houses on the same plan-with the hall and one Solar (q. v.) or sleeping apartment. The same arrangement prevailed, with slight modifications, during the 12th and 13th centuries. In the 14th and 15th centuries, when the country was more settled and prosperous, and manners more refined, more numerous apartments became necessary. The hall, however, still retained its place as the chief apartment. In it the king or the lord of the manor gave audience, administered justice, received and entertained his retainers and guests, and performed all the public acts of feudal life.

At one end of the hall was a raised platform or dais, on which the table of the lord of the manor was placed, and where his more honoured guests sat along with him. The retainers sat at a table which ran along the lower part of the hall. This part was not always in the cleanest and sweetest condition, and hence it received the name of 'the marsh.'

HALL, HALLE, AND HALLEIN, are the names of various places in Southern and Middle Germany, possessing salt-works. Hall is also a general name for a salt manufacture. The Welsh and Armorican word for salt is hal, halen; hence it is inferred that these names were bestowed by Celtic tribes of the Cymric division (to which the ancient Gauls belonged). The Gaelic for salt is sal-ann, agreeing thus with the Lat. sal, and the Ger. salz. The Greek hals (2) agrees with the Cymric. The names Salza, Salzburg, are clearly of Teutonic origin.

HALL, a small and very old town of Austria, in the Tyrol, is situated on the left bank of the Inn, which is here navigable, six miles east of Innsbruck. Its parish church, built in 1271, with a monument that marks the grave of Spechbacher, the bravest and most skilful leader of the Tyrolese in their struggle for independence; its gymnasium, its Franciscan convent, and its Münzthurm, are the chief buildings. About nine miles north of the town is the Salzberg, with salt-mines, from which salt in the form of brine is conveyed to the pans of H. in wooden pipes. Although the demand is not so great as formerly, upwards of 300,000 cwts. of salt are still produced here. H. has also manufactures of sal-ammoniac and chemicals. Pop. 4969.

HALL, or SWÄBISCH-HALL, an old and picturesque town in the kingdom of Würtemberg, is very beautifully situated in the deep valley of the Kocher, 35 miles north-east of Stuttgart. It is surrounded by a ditch and by high walls surmounted with towers. Like other places in whose names the word Hall or Salz occurs, H. has considerable saltworks, which, together with those of Wilhelmsgluck, produce annually nearly 80,000 cwts. There are also tan-works, soap-works, and manufactures of cotton goods and bijouterie. Pop. 6766.

H. at a very early period was the seat of a mint, and the coins first struck here were called Heller (Häller). The town belonged first to the Counts of Westheim, then later to the Knights Templar. In the 13th c. it became a free imperial town, and such it remained till 1802, when, with its territory of 126 square miles (pop. 16,000), it was added to the kingdom of Würtemberg.

HA'LLA, or HALA, a town of Hindustan, in the country of Scinde, is situated on the left bank of the Lower Indus, 35 miles north of Hyderabad. Manufactures of caps, superior coloured earthenwares, and lacquered work, are extensively carried on here. Pop. 11,000, the most of whom are manufacturers. H. is said to be the most ancient city of Scinde.

HALLAM, HENRY, philosophic historian and critic, son of the Dean of Bristol, was born at Windsor in 1777, and educated at Eton and Christchurch, Oxford, where he took his degree of M.A. He was first known by his writings in periodicals, especially by contributing to the Edinburgh Review during its early years; afterwards, he was distinguished among the literary men of Europe for his extensive and profound learning, powers of generalisation, taste, judgment, and conscientiousness, exhibited in a succession of great works: View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages (2 vols. 4to, 1818); The Constitutional History of England from the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of George II. (2 vols. 4to, 1827); and Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries (4 vols. 8vo, 1837-1839), and a volume of supplementary notes to his History of the Middle Ages (1848). All these works have gone through several editions, and been translated into the languages of the leading European nations. They have

procured for their author the enviable reputation of having opened up a new and great field of authorship, and laboured in it with a success that as yet has not been equalled by another. Their wonderful impartiality and veracity are a rebuke to ordinary historians; and it provokes a smile to read, at this distance of time, the strictures of Southey on the acrimony, the arrogance, the injustice, and the illtemper of their author; for England never produced a man who loved truth more disinterestedly than Hallam. H., while yet a young man, was held in the highest estimation among the literary men of his time, both in London and Edinburgh. During the greater portion of his long life, however, he lived in London in privacy, devoting himself to linguistic and historical studies. In politics, he was a Whig; but for the conflicts of parties he was unsuited by his candour and general temperament, and took no part in them, but he displayed a genuine interest in all questions of social improvement, and acted with the Wilberforce party for the abolition of slavery, as well as in other humane schemes, and was one of the original promoters of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. H. had two sons, both of great promise, and both prematurely cut off; the elder, Arthur Henry, who died in 1833, was the friend of Alfred Tennyson the this son, H. has written a touching memoir. H. laureate, and is the subject of In Memoriam. Of died January 1859. He was a Fellow of the Royal and many other societies, and a trustee of

the British Museum.

HALLAMSHIRE, a district in the West Riding of Yorkshire (q. v.).

HA'LLÉ, or HALLEIN, a town of Austria, in the duchy of Salzburg, and 10 miles south of the town of that name, is situated on the right bank of the river Salza, and is noted for its extensive salt-works and saline baths. Pop. 4000. It has also important cotton and needle and button factories. The Dürrenberg, a mountain 2388 feet above the level of the sea, from which the brine is obtained, has 34 shafts or rooms, from which the salt is conveyed in large wooden troughs to the works within the town. The annual produce amounts to about 400,000 cwts. Good rock-salt is also obtained from Dürrenberg.

From

HALLE, a city of Prussian Saxony, in the district of Merseburg, known as H. an der Saale, to distinguish it from other places of the same name, is situated on the right bank of the Saale, and on several small islands of the river, 10 miles north of the city of Meresburg, and consists of H. proper, with its five suburbs, and the governmental townships of Glaucha and Neumarkt. It is chiefly celebrated for its university, which was founded in 1694 by Frederick I., king of Prussia; and after having been suppressed by Napoleon when it had attained the summit of its fame, was re-established in 1815, and incorporated with the university of Wittenberg, which had been dissolved during the war. its earliest foundation, this institution has been regarded as the chief seat of the pietistic school of theology. The roll of its professors shews, however, a long array of names distinguished in every faculty; and, in addition to its theological seminary, it has an academy of the physical sciences, an observatory, a medical school supplied with surgical wards, an anatomical theatre, and botanical garden; and a library containing 60,000 volumes, and various scientific collections. The endowments for the professors and other teachers are liberal, but the attendance has declined of late years, and now only amounts to about 700 students. The Francke Institution is one of the most important establishments

of the place. See FRANCKE. The red tower on the market-place, the town-hall, and the remains of the Moritzburg, the ancient residence of the archbishops of Magdeburg, are all interesting to the antiquary. H. is amply provided with benevolent and educational establishments for the poor, and has a well-conducted institution for the blind, deaf and dumb, and insane, with free schools for both sexes; and as the chief town of a district, is the seat of various government offices and courts of jurisdiction. H. has manufactories of woollen and linen fabrics, gloves, buttons, hardware, and starch; but its most important industrial product is salt, obtained from the brine-springs within and near the town, which have been worked from a very early period, and still yield between 200,000 and 300,000 cwts. annually. Those within the town are worked by a private company, while the suburban works are held by government. The men employed at the salt-springs, and known as the 'Hallores,' are a distinct race, supposed by some to be of Wendish, and by others of Celtic descent, who retain the peculiar habits of their forefathers. Pop. (1859) 38,200.

The origin of H. dates back to the earliest periods of the Germanic empire, when it formed an appanage of the Archbishops of Magdeburg, against whom the citizens frequently waged successful war in the middle ages, during which period the city was at the height of its prosperity. As the point of union between various important lines of railway, and in consequence of the improved means of water-communication between the Saale and Elbe, H. has of late years been making rapid advance in commerce and home industry.

HALLECK, HENRY WAGER, an American general, born in Oneida co., N. Y., the 16th of January, 1814. Having entered the military academy at West Point in 1835, he graduated in 1839; he afterwards acted as assistant professor of engineering in that institution. He was brevetted captain for gallant conduct in the Mexican war, Nov. 1847, and was subsequently secretary of state of California during its military government, from 1847 to 1849. He was a member of the convention to form, and of the committee to draft, the state constitution of California. For several years he practised law in that state with great success. Besides a work entitled Elements of Military Art and Science (1846), he has published Mining Laws of Spain and Mexico, and a work on International Law (San Francisco, 1861). In Aug. 1861, he was appointed a major-general, and subsequently, commanding general of the department of the West: under his direction Fort Donelson was captured and other important successes were obtained by the armies of the West. July 11, 1862, he was promoted to the rank of generalin-chief of all the armies of the United States.

HALLELUIAH (Heb. Praise ye the Lord), one of the forms of doxology used in the ancient church, derived from the Old Testament, and retained, even in the Greek and Latin liturgies, in the original Hebrew. The singing of the doxology in this form dates from the very earliest times; but considerable diversity has prevailed in different churches and at different periods as to the time of using it. In general it may be said that, being in its own nature a canticle of gladness and triumph, it was not used in the penitential seasons, nor in services set apart for occasions of sorrow or humiliation. In the time of St Augustine, the African Church used the Halleluiah only from the feast of Easter to that of Pentecost. In other churches, it was found in most of the services throughout the year, with the

exception of the seasons of Lent and Advent and the vigils of the principal festivals. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Halleluiah is introduced both into the mass and into the several hours of the public office, but it is discontinued from Septuagesima Sunday until Easter; and on the contrary, during the interval between Easter and Pentecost, it is introduced more frequently into the services and in circumstances of greater solemnity. It is always omitted in the services for the dead, and on the ember days, at the quarter tense, and on the principal vigils. In the Church of England, the first Prayer-book of Edward VI. retained the Halleluiah in the original Hebrew. In the present Prayer-book, although retained, it is found not in the Hebrew, but in its English equivalent, Praise ye the Lord. See Binterim's Denkwürdigkeiten der Christ-Kathol. Kirche.

HALLER, ALBRECHT VON, an eminent physi ologist, was born at Bern, October 1708, and died in that city, December 1777. In early life, he was feeble and delicate, being affected with rickets, a disease which is not unfrequently accompanied with considerable intellectual precocity. His father, Nicholas Emmanuel von Haller, who was an advocate, and had the reputation of being an able lawyer, intended him for the church; but his own inclinations being in favour of medicine, he proceeded in 1723 (two years after his father's death) to the university of Tübingen, where he became the pupil of the well-known anatomist Duvernoy. In 1725, he removed to Leyden, where he attended with much advantage the lectures of Boerhaave and of Albinus, and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1727. He then visited London, where he made the acquaintance of Sloane, Douglas, and Cheselden; whence he proceeded to Oxford, and afterwards to Paris, where for six months he studied anatomy and botany under Winslow and De Jussieu; but one of his neighbours, who was annoyed by his dissections, having threatened to denounce him to the police, he made a rapid retreat to Basel, where he became the pupil of John Bernoulli, the celebrated mathematician. After seven years' study in these different seats of learning, he returned, in his 22d year, to his native city, and commenced practice as a physician. The professor of anatomy, Meig, having fallen ill, H. undertook the duties of his class; he likewise devoted much of his time about this period to the botany of the Alps; and also published a celebrated descriptive poem, entitled Die Alpen (The Alps). In 1735, he was appointed physician to the hospital, and shortly afterwards, principal librarian and curator of the cabinet of medals; but these offices he did not hold long, for in 1736, George II. wishing to establish a university at Göttingen, offered him the professorship of medicine, anatomy, botany, and surgery, which, after some hesitation, he accepted. From this time, he gave up the practice of his profession, and for the next 18 years devoted himself wholly to teaching and to original research. He took an active part in the formation of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Göttingen; and the memoirs of the society, which appeared under the title of Commentarii Societatis Regia Scientiarum Gottingensis, contain many of his papers. During the period that he held the professorship-viz., from 1736 to 1753-he composed and published 86 works on medical subjects, chiefly on physiology and botany; and it is recorded that he contributed upwards of 12,000 notices or reviews of books to the Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, a monthly periodical work, of which he was editor. In 1753, in consequence of disputes with his colleagues, and probably in part from the delicate state of his health, he resigned