The Hedgehog is a well-known type of the order, noted for its power of rolling itself into a ball, and for carrying on its The hedgehog. back hairs having the character of spines, an inch long. Thus it is most efficiently protected against attack, and is able to conquer even snakes by sudden bites and equally sudden coilings into a Power of ball. It dwells in most varied coiling. situations, being often found in hedges, ditches, or forest-haunts. It goes abroad chiefly at night, and is one of the hibernating animals. Beetles constitute its chief diet, although slugs, snails and earthworms are not outside its taste or appetite. Foxes and owls prey on them successfully. Moles are very subterranean creatures of voracious appetite, restless energy, and great constructive ability. Their burMole burrows. rows are marvels of skill, and their digging is effected by specially adapted, short, flattened, and powerful limbs. It appears probable that they are guided to their food by the sense of smell, which is very acute. ORDER EDENTATA-SLOTHS AND ANT- This order includes some of the most singular animals now living, and still Simple.teeth. more remarkable extinct creatures. Almost all have only one kind of teethgrinders, and these very simple in structure. They have long tongues, and their toes possess claws. The Sloths are strange inhabitants of the trees of South America, which are specially adapted to hang suspended from ant eaters. Toothless. eaters covered with hair and bristles, but also others provided with a peculiar investment of large overlapping scales, covering the whole body and Scaly the tail, which is as long as the body. So sufficient is their tongue to gain their prey, that they have absolutely no teeth. Some species occur in India, China, Sumatra and Java. In South America there is a series of hairy ant-eaters which have their heads extremely long and slender, and the tail Hairy very bushy. They are toothless, and as perfectly adapted for preying on ants as their South African relatives; they can insert and withdraw their tongues covered with ants in less than a second. ant eaters. Another great group of edentates, not so exclusively ant-eating as the last, is most efficiently protected by a bony crust developed in their skin, Armadillos. somewhat as in the crocodiles, but rivalling the latterin possessing separations between different portions of their armour, so that shields and bands are constituted, sometimes as few as three, in others reaching more than a dozen. These bands can be moved so that the creature can coil up into a ball somewhat like the hedgehog. They have simple teeth, and feed to some extent on vegetable food as well as insects, some also on carrion. They have large claws which are of use in burrowing. They inhabit South America. AUSTRALIAN ANT-EATER. Sloths. tree branches. They are little qualified for the ordinary quadruped's marching order, for their claws are so curved inwards that walking must be performed resting upon them, and the ankle is permanently clubbed. The neck is long, having nine vertebræ in one, but only six in another form of sloth. In general the number of toes is reduced to three on each foot, and Reduction of in one genus it is further reduced to two on the fore-feet. They have strong jaws for chewing the leaves of the trees on which they live, and they are further adapted for their life by being of a colour which agrees extremely well with that of the trees and leaves. Their fore-limbs are much longer than the hinder. toes. Where ants abound in countless myriads, making huge mounds for their dwellings, there a variety of quadrupeds is found Ant-eaters. which derive their sustenance by the ant's destruction. The ant-eaters are provided with long tongues, and with large salivary glands capable of secreting considerable quantities of thick adhesive juice, by which ants are gathered wholesale into the mouth of their enemy. The head is usually long, and the feet are well adapted for digging and burrowing. South Africa not only has ant Gigantic fossil forms of Sloths (mylodon, megathe rium) and Armadillos (Glyptopon etc.) were abundant in South America in recent geological periods. FRENCH GRAMMAR-O XLVI. THE VERB (continued).-THEORY. 1. THE VARIOUS CLASSES OF VERBS continued).-IMPERSONAL VERBS. [Those impersonal verbs which refer to natural phenomena mostly have been under consideration: see a, p. 830.] b. Impersonal verbs conjugated reflectively. S'AGIE DE, to be at issue, to be at stake, to be the matter; conjugated like finir (p. 7): il s'agit de netre honneur, our honour is at stake; de quoi s'agissait-il? what was the matter? il ne s'agit pas que vous écricin il faut que vous alliez vous-même, the point at issue is not your writing, you must go personally. [Bat what is the matter with you = qu'avez-vous! or que Dous manque-t-il? NOT de quoi s'agit-il avec vous!] S'ENSUIVRE, to follow as a consequence; an irregular verb, conjugated like suivre, given later on: il 'sunt de ce que vous venez de dire, que les hommes sont condemnin à l'erreur (Bernardin de Saint-Pierre), from what you have just said, it follows that men are condemned to error; il s'en est ensuivi un changement épouvantable (Bossuet), there has resulted from it à frightful FRENCH GRAMMAR, change. [As a personal verb s'ensuivre is used in the 3rd pers. sing. and plur. only.] S'ÉTABLIE, to gain ground, regular like finir: il s'établissait peu à peu parmi eux, l'opinion que. (Littré), the opinion was gradually gaining ground among them that SE FAIRE, to be, to happen; an irregular verb con- il ne s'en faut pas de beaucoup, peu s'en faut, or il s'en faut peu, que je ne vous renvoie, for my dismissing you (I feel much inclined to dismiss you). SE PASSEE, to occur, conjugated like se fácher: il se passe bien des choses, there are many things occurring; jamais peut-être dans un si court intervalle de 865 condemned to error follows from what you just said; l'opinion s'établissait parmi eux, the opinion was gaining ground among them; un grand silence se fit, a great silence supervened; peu s'en faut, little is wanting; bien des choses se passent, many things are occurring; la chose peut se faire que vous ayez raison, or vous pouvez avoir raison, you may be right, etc. c. Impersonal verbs used with an indirect object of a person : ÉCHAPPER, to do inadvertently, conjugated with avoir or être: il lui échappera quelque sottise (Littré), he will inadvertently do or say something foolish; jamais il ne m'a échappé une seule parole qui put découvrir le moindre secret (Fénelon), never has there escaped me a word that might disclose the least secret; il m'était échappé d'en faire confidence (Corneille), I had inadvertently confided it. PLAIRE, to please, to choose: il me plait d'agir ainsi, I choose to act so; s'il vous plait, if you please; plaîtil? what is your desire? [The last phrase, much used in answer to the call of one's name, offers the ellipsis of the objects, as it stands for que vous plaitil? If you please, being translated literally, gives si vous plaises, which means, if you are pleasing, agreeable.] temps il ne s'est passé de si grandes choses (Barthélemy), never perhaps did such great things happen in so short a space of time. SE POUVOIR, to be possible, conjugated like pouvoir, given later on: il se peut que vous ayez raison, it is possible that you may be right; il ne se peut rien de plus beau, nothing more beautiful can be imagined. Tout se qui se peut de plus magnifique, the most mag. nificent thing imaginable; ils étaient ignorants, tout ce qui se peut, dans la connaissance des Pères, they were indescribably ignorant in the knowledge of the Fathers.] SE RENCONTRER, to happen, to coincide with, conjugated like se fácher: il se rencontre ici une aventure merveilleuse, there happens here a singular coincidence, or, by a wonderful coincidence in this case; il s'est rencontré des hommes de ce caractère, men of that stamp have been met with. It will be useful to observe here how in most of the foregoing examples the impersonal verb could be turned into a personal one by the disappearance of it, the apparent subject. [S'agir de must be excepted, unless it be replaced by another phrase: il s'agit de notre honneur notre honneur est en cause.] Taking each section in turn, we find: Que les hommes sont condamnés à l'erreur s'ensuit de ce que vous venez de dire, that men are VOL. II, RHYNCOTUS. ABMADILLO. PRENDRE, to be seized by: il lui prend un frisson, he is seized by a shiver; il prit à cet homme un dégoût de la vie, that man was seized by a disgust for life; il lui a pris en gré d'apprendre l'escrime, the fancy has taken hím to learn fencing. EN PRENDRE, to be lucky or unlucky, to have consequences, to get on, to come off well or badly: il en prit aux uns comme aux autres (La Fontaine), they got on just alike, they shared a like fate. [Both prendre and en prendre admit of the ellipsis of the apparent subject il: Bien lui prend de n'être pas de verre (Molière), it is lucky for him he was not made of glass; mal vous en prerdra si vous n'écoutez pas mes avis, you will get on badly (you will have cause for regret) if you do not follow my counsels.] TARDER, to long to, followed by de with the infinitive, or by que with the subjunctive, and conjugated with avoir: il me tarde de revoir mes enfants, I long to see my children again; il me tardait qu'on me permit de rentrer, I was longing to be permitted to return home. [In older French the subjunctive of the subordinate clause was accompanied by ne expletive: il me tarde bien que je n'aie des habits raisonnables (Molière), I long to have decent clothes.] d. Impersonal verbs which may appear with or without an indirect object of a person. [We single out sembler and falloir; the rest present no special difficulty.] This en is an expletive, a filler-up. 55 1. With the exception of to do and to get, there is hardly, from the foreigner's point of view, a verb more ubiquitous in English speech than to think. Whether this points to a philosophic habit in the people, or to a paucity of synonyms in the vocabulary, is irrelevant. This verb is rendered into French rather less by penser than by croire, songer, juger, and sembler. The last would be most appropriate in these phrases :— I think so il me semble que oui; We do not think so il nous semble que non; 2. Conjugation of FALLOIR, to be necessary. Present, qu'il faille, that it may be necessary To be necessary, selected here as a rendering of falloir for convenience' sake, would prove a clumsy translation in the majority of cases. When falloir is followed by an infinitive purely and simply, or by an infinitive accompanied by its indirect object of the person, or by a subjunctive, it is best to construe it with must, to have to, to be obliged to, to be incumbent on, and the person inferred or expressed as a nominative. When falloir is followed by a noun, to want, to require, to have need of, will prove correct readings. We shall take these cases in order : (i.) How to render falloir followed by an infinitive only.-In some proverb, truism, or general proposition, when nothing in the text or context indicates that the truth is applicable to any one in particular, it is best to use to be necessary and one must: Il faut voir le monde pour se former, it is necessary to see the world in order to educate oneself, or one must see, etc. Elle parle plus qu'il ne faut, she speaks more than it is necessary (she speaks more than she should, equally correct, might apply to a special circumstance). Il faut, autant qu'on peut, obliger tout le monde (La Fontaine), one must, as much as possible, oblige everybody. When the general sense or context permits the inference that what is said is applicable to a particular individual, must, to have to, to be obliged, etc., are preferred : : Longtemps il hésita, mais lorsque je lui appris la nouvelle, il fallut se soumettre, for a long time he hesitated, but when I told him the news he was obliged to submit. Mes enfants, il faudra courir pour arriver à temps à l'école, children, you will have to run in order to reach school in time. Mon garçon, me dit-il, il va falloir partir, my boy, said he to me, you will have to go (it is going to be neces sary for you to depart). (ii.) How to render falloir followed by an infinitive preceded by its indirect object of the person. This construction leaves no doubt as to the subject of must, to have to, etc. It is the person whose indirect objective pronoun precedes the infinitive : Il me fallut essuyer les mauvais traitements de mon maitre, I had to submit to my master's ill-usage. Il nous faut gagner du temps, we must, we have to, gain time (also it is necessary for us to). (iii.) How to translate falloir followed by que and the subjunctive.-This is done in the same manner as in (ii.), because the nominative to must, etc., is suggested by the nominative of the verb in the subordinate clause-that is, the subject of the subjunctive: Il faut que j'aille, I must go ; [there; il fallait que tu allasses, you had to go; il fallut qu'il s'y rendit, he was obliged to betake himself il faudra que nous le fassions, we shall have to do it. Observe how each of these phrases might be constructed with the infinitive in French :Il me faut aller, I must go; il te fallait aller, you had to go; il lui fallut s'y rendre, he was obliged to repair there; il nous le faudra faire, we shall have to do it. The construction with the infinitive presents, however, the danger of rendering the sense dubious; for instance, il nous le faudra faire bears the double meaning "we shall have to do it," and "you will please do it to us," or 66 you will have to do it to us." The use of the subjunctive removes all doubt. (iv.) How to translate falloir followed by a noun. In this position it indicates a lack, or a simple requirement, and is rendered by to lack, to want, to require, to demand, to charge for, etc. Votre toilette n'est pas complète, il vous faut un beau châle, your dress is not complete, you are lacking a beautiful shawl. Il nous faut un billet, we want a ticket; il nous fant encore un billet, we are one ticket short, or me want another ticket. Que vous faut-il pour ce cheval?-il m'en faut cent guinées, what do you charge (what do you want) for this horse?-I want a hundred guinear for it. (v.) Remarks on some idiomatic uses of falloir. In a familiar, unconstrained style, this verb suffers sometimes the ellipsis of il: allons, mon fils, marchons: fallut se rendre, fallut partir (Voltaire), come, my son. let us be off: I had to submit, I had to go; s'il faut du Faust, pas trop n'en faut (from a comic paper), if we must have Faust (Goethe's? Gounod's? Berlioz's), avoid having too much of him. Faut-il, fallait-il, express a regret: Faut-il avoir ĉu guignon! what a pity to have such ill-luck! Fallait d qu'il entreprit ce voyage! what a pity he undertook that journey! A threat implied: il m'écrit qu'il me coupera les viera, c'est ce qu'il faudra voir, he writes to me that he will stop my allowance; I should like to see him do it. With the force of an adverbial phrase: on les battit, il faut voir! they were beaten, oh, so thoroughly: pour aimer comme il faut, il faut savoir se dévouer, to love properly one must be able to devote oneself. C'est un homme comme il faut he is a well-bred man, a gentleman; c'est l'homme qu'il faut he is the right man in the right place; c'est un homme comme il en fast - he is a man such as are required. ANCIENT HISTORY. L. ROME (continued). ANCIENT HISTORY. DOMITIAN having left no heir, the senate elected one of themselves, M. Cocceius Nerva, as emperor. Nerva's four sucNerva, cessors were also chosen by the A.D. 96-98. senate, and these five' were the best rulers Rome ever had, and their times were the happiest for the empire. To keep the Prætorian guards in check, Nerva adopted as his heir and partner Trajanus, the best of all his generals, who was at that time in command of the Rhine legions. Then, having reigned but sixteen months, he died, and Trajan, A.D. 117. Trajanus, or Trajan as he is generrlly called, with the consent of the senate became sole ruler. He was a Spaniard, and the first emperor who was not an Italian. His popularity with all classes was unbounded. The soldiers were devoted to him because he was a good general; the people loved him because he was gracious and kindly, as well as just; and the senate, to mark their high opinion of him, gave him the title of "Optimus," the Best-a title which was given to no other emperor. He undertook two great military expeditions-against the Dacians and against the Parthians. Dacia, including the modern countries of Hungary and Roumania, was completely conquered, and to this day the province of Roumania testifies by its language as well as its name the thoroughness of its settlement. His invasion of the East was even more brilliant, and he led his legions right down to the Persian Gulf; but these conquests were not permanent, and on his return he died of a wound, in A.D. 117. In the interval between his two expeditions, he did much to beautify Rome, Improvements and built many useful buildings in Rome, all through Italy. The forum and column of Trajan are still to be seen in Rome, after being buried under accumulations of débris for centuries; and the bronze reliefs upon the column depict his exploits against the Dacians. Conquest of Dacia, A.D. 101. Expedition against the Parthians, A.D. 114. 867 sopher and a humane ruler, devoting himself unremittingly to the welfare of his people and to the encouragement of all that was noble and good in human nature. His reign of twentyone years was peaceful and happy, and uneventful. He adopted Marcus Aurelius, and gave him a share of the government during his life. Marcus Wars and Marcus Aurelius, A.D. was a philosopher, even more 161-180. learned and studious than his father, but he fell on evil days, revolts on all sides kept him occupied in a manner by no Frontier troubles. means to his taste. But he saw that it was his duty to look after the safety above all things of his empire, and he resigned himself, like a Stoic, as he was. The Germans on the north made incessant attacks upon the Roman frontier, being driven on by the Russians, who were crowding them westwards. Marcus Aurelius died in the year A.D. 180 at Vienna, while fighting against the barbarian invaders. Though considered by historians to have been one of the best men who ever lived, his memory has one deep stain upon it, the frequent and wholesale persecutions of the Christians. Commodus. A.D. 180-192. Prætorian Pertinax, soldiers. He was succeeded by his son Commodus, a coarse and cruel man,, who was soon murdered by his own servants. Pertinax, a senator, was chosen to succeed him; but the guards took offence at his sternness, and killed him in three months. For nearly a hundred years after this the emperors were chosen by the soldiers without any regard to the senate. When a vacancy Emperors occurred in the throne, the chosen by the legions which happened to be most powerful at the moment generally proclaimed their own general emperor. Very often the new emperor's title was disputed by the general of another army; and even if all acquiesced for the time, the emperor was sure to make enemies of his soldiers the moment he attempted to check their fearful lawlessness, and then he was assassinated, and some one else put in his place, to meet the same fate before long. The soldiers carried everything their own way, and the people had to submit to exorbitant taxation and tyranny of every kind. Very few of these military emperors are worth remembering, and we shall only mention a few. Diocletian, restored for a time the failing power of the empire. He, in fact, divided the empire among four rulers. There were two Augusti, himself and Maximianus, and A.D. 284-305. two Caesars, whose authority was somewhat less than that of the Changes in the Augusti. These four did good government. work so long as they worked together, and beat back the barbarians on all sides. Moreover, the soldiers were kept in check by the knowledge that the death of one of the four would be avenged by the other three. After twenty-one years of hard work, Diocletian voluntarily abdicated, and lived for the remaining nine years of his life His abdication. in retirement in Dalmatia. His abdication was followed by civil wars among the other rulers for nearly twenty years, when Constantinus, known as Constantine the Great enemies were the Franks, who afterwards gave their name to France; and the Goths, or North Germans. These kept up Franks and continual attacks along the Rhine Goths. and Danube, and the Goths subsequently spread almost all round the empire, and eventually established themselves permanently inside it. The first actual loss of territory was the abandonment of Dacia to the Goths in 270. Besides these Germanic invaders, the Persians in the far east had begun to give great trouble; and one unfortunate Persians. emperor, Valerian, fell into their hands, and had to taste the bitterness of the cup of captivity, which Roman generals had for centuries obliged their defeated rivals to drain. Diocletian, who seized the throne in 284, made important changes in the government, and |