between Cleopatra and her brother Ptolomæus for the throne of that country. Won by her surpassing beauty, he took the side of Cleo

patra, and placed her securely Caesar in the on the throne. Then crossing to East. Asia Minor he encountered the rebel son of Mithridates, Pompeius' old enemy, and in five days completed the conquest of his kingdom. This was the campaign which he announced to the senate in the memorable despatch" Veni, vidi, vici," (“I came, I saw, I conquered "). He returned to Rome to arrange matters there, but in three months started off again for Africa, where Pompeius' party had again collected in formidable numbers. Another great victory dispersed them, and Cato, who was among the routed leaders of this revolt, committed suicide after the battle. Cæsar returned to Rome again; but almost immediately set off again to Spain, where the sons of Pompeius were gathering a force for one more stand against their father's conqueror. Once more Cæsar was victorious, and now at last he returned with some prospect of rest after his unbroken success in every part of the empire. There was no power at home or abroad capable of offering any further

resistance to his will. He was Cesar supreme. in truth absolute master of the whole Roman world, and in all but name an absolute monarch. Honours and privileges the most unusual were poured upon him by the senate and the people. A statue in his honour was erected, with an inscription to "Cæsar the Demigod." Temples were dedicated to him; the name of one of the months of the year was changed to "Julius" in his honour. He was made dictator for life, consul for five years, "imperator" or commander in chief (a new title), tribune of the people, censor and chief pontiff. In fact, all the chief offices of the state were centred in this one man. It must be admitted that he made an excellent use of the powers so lavishly bestowed upon him; and had he lived a few years longer, the future of Rome and of the world might have been happier. He desired to admit the people of the provinces to the privileges of Roman citizens, and even to introduce their most eminent men into the senate. And it was his hope that when he had reduced all things to order, and laid the foundations of peace and good government all through the empire, he might be able to hand on his power to some worthy successor. But his dream of reforms was unfortunately

At

cut short. It was impossible Assassination of that he should have escaped the Cæsar. malice and hatred of some and the envy of others. Possibly, too. there were genuine patriots and haters of arbitrary power who sighed to rid the world of one whom they could not but consider a usurper. all events a conspiracy was got up to murder him, and amongst the conspirators were many whom he had loaded with benefits. The name best known to Romans of that time, as well as to us, was that of Junius Brutus, a man whom Cæsar believed to be his warm friend and supporter, and to whom he had shown the greatest favour. For the honour of human

809

nature we must give to Brutus and his fellow assassins the benefit of the doubt, and assume that they acted from overwhelming sense of duty. They attacked their victim suddenly in the senate-house, and he fell pierced with no less than twenty-three dagger wounds, exclaiming "Et tu Brute!" (and you also, Brutus!) He was but fifty-six years of age. As a writer, or a statesman, or a general-any one of the three-he would have been amongst the greatest of his age. Combining these three capacities as he did, his place among the great men of history is second to none, and perhaps it ought to stand by itself above all others.

Octavianus.

Antonius.

Great confusion followed his death. He had chosen for his heir his grand-nephew Octavianus, the son of hi sister's daughter. But Octavianus was a youth of eighteen, and away in Greece completing his education there, like many of the young Roman nobles of the time. Besides, he had no official position, as Cæsar's powers were not hereditary The most powerful man in Rome was Antonius, the consul. He was Cæsar's minister and favourite, and it seemed natural that he should for the moment at least step into Cæsar's place until things settled down. A compromise with the assassins was made; but Antonius soon felt himself powerful enough to defy Brutus and his party, and they quitted Rome. In fact, as Cicero said, "the tyrant was dead, but the tyranny still lived "-in Antonius.

But Antonius was not to have everything his own way for very long. Octavianus lost no time in returning home, to claim his inheritance nominally, but in reality to follow out the dreams of ambition which already had filled his mind. Why should not he attain the same great place in the government of the empire that his uncle had held? and why might he not even wear the crown which his uncle had refused only because the time was not yet fully ripe for the change?

But his caution and craft were not less than his ambition; and so at first he kept very quiet. His cause was steadily supported by a great many of Cæsar's old friends and supporters, and a considerable army gathered round his standard. In the civil war which broke out almost immediately between the senate and Antonius, he threw his whole influence into the scale with the former, and Antonius was defeated. But he was still powerful, and Octavianus saw that it would be better for him to follow Cæsar's example, and enter into an arrangement with the men who commanded armies rather than with the senate, who would probably deprive him of his command on the first opportunity. So Octavianus and Antonius and Lepidus, who all had large armies in the field, agreed to govern jointly, just as JuliusThe Triumvirate. Cæsar, Pompeius and Crassus

had done twelve years before. They called themselves the triumvirate or government of three men, and claimed to be above the senat> and the consuls and even the laws.

To get rid of formidable oppo- Proscriptions.

nents, each of the triumvirs drew up a list of

the persons he required to be put to death, and thus the horrors of Sulla's proscriptions were once more seen in the streets of Rome. A brother of Lepidus and an uncle of Antonius were among the proscribed"; but the most illustrious victim was the great writer, orator and statesman, Cicero. He had made himself too prominent in denouncing the usurpation of Antonius, and was too dangerous to be allowed to live. He fled. but was overtaken. His head was cut off and carried to Rome.

Meantime the republican leaders. Brutus and Cassius, had fled to the east-Brutus to Greece, Cassius to Syria. They ultiBrutus and Cas- mately joined their forces, now sius at Philippi. numbering some 50.000, at Philippi, on the borders of Macedonia. Here Octavianus and Antonius met them with an equally large, or even larger, army. A great battle was fought, in which the division under Cassius was defeated by Antonius, while Brutus got the better of Octavianus, who was suffering from illness at the time. Cassius, thinking all hope was gone, committed suicide. Brutus ventured to give battle again some weeks after on the same ground, and being utterly beaten, followed Cassius' example, and put an end to himself. Antonius and Octavianus were now masters of the situation. It was agreed that Antonius should rule the eastern and Octavianus the western provinces, while Lepidus was given Africa. Antonius soon fell completely under the influence of Cleopatra, the beautiful and accomplished, but unprincipled queen of Egypt, whose charms had fascinated even the great Julius.

While Antonius was indulging in the extremest forms of Eastern licence and luxury, instead of leading his legions against the enemies of Rome, Octavianus was quietly increasing his power and influence in Rome by his good government. He had much trouble to put down the piracy of Sextus Pompeins, son of the great Pompeius, who was at this time master of the seas, and had made the supply of corn for Rome a very difficult matter. Octavianus had no fleet, and was obliged to build one. At last, however, he utterly defeated Pompeius and Lepidus, who had united to oppose him. Lepidus was deprived of his command, and thenceforth gave no further trouble. Pompeius fled to Antonius, and was by him put to death. We saw that in the first triumvirate that of Julius Cæsar, Pompeius and Crassus-the death of Crassus left Julius and Pompeius to fight out the struggle for supremacy without any third party to hold the balance. So now, in this second triumvirate, the defeat of Lepidus left Antonius and Octavianus face to face. Antonius still remained in Egypt with his bewitching mistress. But at last he saw that he must rouse himself to face the now threatening power of his rival. War broke out between them. A great naval battle was fought on the shores Battle of Actium. of the Adriatic at Actium. The ships of Antonius were both more numerous and larger than those of Octavianus, but the victory remained with the latter. Cleopatra, who was present in her own galley, fled in the

Suicide of Antonius and

Cleopatra

heat of the action; her lover, whether fre love of her or from cowardice, f Lowed bet and left his fleet and his legions to look after themselves. Tous deserted by their leader. they soon submitted to Octavianus. The coqueror determined to pursue his defeated va to Egypt. Antonius, in despair, believing Cleopatra to be dead, committed suicide. She was taken prisoner and brought before the victorious youth, upon whom she hoped her still transcendent beauty and wit might po duce the same impression which had twive before enabled her to conquer the coquero of the world. But when she found her hopes were vain, and that she was to be brought t Rome to grace his triumph, she determined that she would escape at least that crowning calamity. She was found dead, along with twɔ of her attendants. It is not certain how she killed herself, but it is at least probable that the popular belief was well grounded, and that she put an end to her life by allowing a poisonous snake to bite her.

Cleopatra was the last, and for us moderns the most famous, of the great Egyptian dynasty of the Ptolemies. Her surpassing beauty and wit, her unbounded profligacy, her connection with Roman history through Julius Caesa and Mark Antony, and her romantic death, have combined to make her the, most striking woman of her time. Egypt a Roman On her death Egypt became a proving Roman province

The death of Antonius was probably most fortunate for the world. Had he overcome Octavianus, an utterly profligate

Effects of

and corrupt empire would pro- Antonius death bably have been established, but could never have lasted, and the old horreS of civil war and anarchy would have revived until some stronger and wiser ruler established himself firmly in power. Fortunately Octavianus was such a ruler, and more. He was I statesman of the highest order of genius; and the form of government which he was now about to establish was destined to prove, by its permanent endurance through many centuries, the profound wisdom of his views.

The times were ripe for such a man. The civil wars which began in the time of Marius had continued now for half a century. Every one was heartily tired of them; and so accustomed had people become to the sight of a military commander wielding the chief power of the state and overriding senate and peop alike, that the mass of Romans were no longer shocked at it, and were quite ready to sequiso in it, if it secured peace and order. Still th were many who looked back with regret to the old republican form of government, and feucht hard to preserve what remained of it. Such men were capable of repeating the lesson to would-be kings which Brutus and Cassins had taught by their assassination of Julius Caesar Octavianus had laid the lesson to heart. He carefully avoided all appearance of kingly state. The name of king was studiously kept t of sight, and the old republican forms were

Policy of Octavianus

preserved, while their spirit was totally changed. The policy of the republic had been to break up the kingly prerogative and distribute it amongst a number of different persons so that each could check the others. But Octavianus set himself to

Concentration of gradually concentrate all these power. powers in himself, by means ostensibly legal. His influence, after Antonius' overthrow, was so great that the senate, to gain his favour, pressed upon him the office of Imperator, or permanent commander-in-chief of the army. This made him really the chief power in the state. Then he got himself made Censor, which enabled him to decide who should and who should not be a senator.

He

was also made Principas, or head of the senate, and Tribune of the people, as well as Pontifex or chief priest. So that he was now the legal and recognised head of the army, the senate, the people, and their religion; and these offices were bestowed upon him for life. To mark his peculiar position, he took the title of "Augustus," which was safer than the hated name of "king," and by this title he is generally known in history. Having got all the real power firmly in his grasp, he cared little for the outward show of superiority, and lived remarkably simply and quietly in Rome.

Literature.

He encouraged literature, and loved to have men of letters about him. His reign was, in fact, the golden age of Roman literature. Virgil wrote his immortal epic poem, The Eneid, to celebrate the deeds of Æneas, the supposed ancestor of the Julian clan. Horace and Ovid flourished at this time also, and Livy wrote his history of Rome. There are perhaps no names in Roman literature better known to every one who has learned Latin than are these four, and they have justly won for the Augustan age the very first place in Roman classical literature. The chief characteristics of the literature of this age originated in the leading features of the Roman character. The Romans were a practical and not a speculative people; pure speculation, therefore found little favour and encouragement in the literature they produced.

Having firmly established his government, Augustus, as we may now call him, set to work to arrange the affairs of the Affairs of the empire. The reader will remem

empire.

ber that at the death of Julius Cæsar, the conquered provinces included Spain, France (or Gaul), Greece, and Macedonia, Asia Minor, Syria, and portions of Africa, besides all the islands of the Mediterranean. Augustus added little to the empire, except the country south of the Danube, which he made the boundary of the empire for the greater part of its length, and he left his advice to his successors that they should refrain from conquering fresh territories, and aim only at strengthening their frontiers.

His advice was followed, except that Britain was finally conquered in A.D. 51, by the Emperor Claudius, having been abandoned for a hundred years after Cæsar's landing there; and Dacia, the modern Roumania, was incorporated by Trajan in A.D. 106.

MACHINES AND MACHINERY.

VIII.

MACHINE TOOLS.

811

THERE is no need to attempt here a description of what is commonly understood by the word tool, nor the meaning of the word machine; it will suffice to say that there is a class of appliances in every-day use in the workshop that are somewhat more complicated than tools, though they scarcely deserve the name of machines, and it is to such that we are about to devote a little attention.

Tools are made more complicated either for convenience' sake, or, as it is commonly stated, to gain power; the fact being that no power is gained by the use of any machine, unless by gaining we agree to mean the more complete utilization and the more effective disposal of the power that is already at the command of the workman. We generally find that by the use of what may be called a machine tool, not only is time economized, but in most cases the results far exceed in accuracy those obtainable by more simple means.

The number of machine tools constructed for special operations is very great, so that we shall have to be content with a reference to a few of those that are of more general application, such as sawing, hammering, and boring appli

ances.

One of the most simple and ordinary methods of economizing time and power is by rendering an intermittent motion continuous. Now in using an ordinary hand-saw we have not only an intermittent action, but a great loss of time and energy; for after each cut the saw must be drawn back before another cut can be made. These disadvantages are overcome by the use of circular saws, which are turned either by steam power, by means of a treadle, or more rarely by a cranked handle. This complication of the tool renders it necessary that the saw shall be stationary and that the material itself shall be moved as it is being cut. This is indeed a general rule in such cases. To facilitate the motion of the work and to afford it the necessary support, a bench is used, and through a slit in its top the saw projects from below. An adjustable guide is fixed to the bench at the side of the saw, so that the work may be pressed against it and slowly advanced to the cutting edge; the greatest uniformity being thus secured in the similar parts of doors, sashes, etc., when large numbers are being prepared at the same time.

The action of the hammer is, like that of the hand-saw, intermittent; but a little consideration will show that it is impossible in this case to obtain a continuous action without producing a mere pressing machine, and so losing all the characteristics that make the hammer so useful a tool. The blow given by a hammer is produced by its momentum, and this momentum may be increased, and so the

representation of which is given in fig. 26. The mass of iron that is equivalent to the hammer-head is connected with a rod, which has a piston at its other end working in an inverted cylinder. The hammer block is raised by admitting high-pressure steam under the piston, and falls by reason of its own weight when the steam is let out. The descent of the hammer may be so perfectly regulated, however, by the machinery shown on the left of the figure, that it can, if necessary, be brought down gently enough to crack a nut without crushing the kernel. This machine has many advantages over the other hammers referred to, one of the chief of which is that the face of the hammer-block is always parallel with the face of the anvil, so that the blow delivered is vertical, whatever may be the thickness of the intervening mass. Where the hammer works at the end of a lever, it is obvious that it moves in a circle, and that its face forms an angle with the anvil top, which increases as the distance between them becomes greater. In setting up any mechanical hammer, great care should be given to the fixing of the anvil so that it shall be enabled to resist the tremendous shocks to which it is

813

Just so holes may be bored with tools of the most primitive construction, but in the vast majority of cases we can obtain a better and more speedy result by the use of slightly more elaborate apparatus. The simplest way of making a hole is by pushing a pointed taper instrument through the substance to be perforated, or by the use of a bradawl, which is provided with an edge instead of a point, and so makes a hole of uniform diameter. But in neither of these cases do we get a clean hole, for the substance of the object bored is merely pushed on one side, and will tend to return more or less to its original position when the obstacle is removed. These tools, then, although preferable to any others in certain cases, are so radically imperfect in C their action as hole makers that it may be taken for granted that the principle of action must be improved before it can be advantageous to elaborate the instrument. In other words, it is always bad policy to attempt improvements in detail, when the principle is faulty; and it needs but little observation to see that successful inventors in certain measure realize this fact, though perhaps too often instinctively