William.

the treaty of Oliva, in 1660, the sovereignty of the duchy of Prussia was The great Elector Frederick guaranteed to him. At a later period he fought valiantly against the threatened supremacy of Louis XIV., and in 1675, by his great victory of Fehrbellin over the Swedes, put an end to the power of that nation in North Germany. In 1679 he drove them out of Prussia, but the weak desertion of his cause by the emperor compelled him to relinquish many advantages that he had gained. He was succeeded at his death by his son Frederick, who in 1701 converted the marquisate of Brandenburg and the territories thereunto belonging into a kingdom, and with the reluctant consent of the Emperor Leopold became the first king of Prussia.

1. Does she at last consent to it?-No, she does not consent to it, she objects to it. 2. What did you put into it?-I put nothing at all into it. 3. Are you going to Burgundy this year?-I am going there (or to it), but I do not intend to make a long stay there. 4. One has cheated me (or I was cheated) in that shop; I shall no more return to it. The tradesman did not look honest; you ought not to have trusted (yourself to) him. 5. I read and read again this page, and I do not find any error in it. Yet, there is one. 6. You see that house over there?-Yes Well, we shall spend the summer in it. 7. If it is a letter from Theresa that you have just received, do not fail to answer (to) it to-day.-I have already answered it. 8. Ís Mr. Dupré at home?—Yes, sir, he is (there), but visitors are not admitted; he is ill. 9. If they approach the bank of the river too near, they will fall into it.-If they fall into it, they will get out of it; they swim like fishes. 10. Is it enough? tell me; will this not do yet?-No. This will do then ?-Not at all. That will do. You do not come near it. 11. How much do you bid for it?—I bid nothing for it, I am not in need of it. 12. Here are bananas and dates which I have just bought : do you wish to have some (of them)?-Be so kind as to give me some (of them). 13. How do you like these wild cherries? Shall I pass

you a few kilos of them ?—I shall be very glad to take half a dozen kilos of them. 14. Where are you going?-I? I am going to the country; are you coming from it?-No, we are not coming from it. 15. He asked you for some cranberries, and you have given him some.— Of course why should I not have given him some? 16. Do you remember the words of his letter? I have remembered the contents of it. I have forgotten both the words and the contents of it. 17. Have you brought

back flowers from the garden ?--Yes, we have brought back some. 18. Did they read any French to-day?-No, they have not yet read any. When will they read some?-They will read some to-morrow. 19. Has she a medlar! -No, she has not any. Yes, she has one (of them). 20. Why does one complain of tim (of her, of them, m., of them, ƒ.)?-One does not complain of him (of her, of them, m, of them, f.)

EXERCISE XLII. (page 244).

1. Nous y consentons, si elle s'y refuse. 2 La cuisinière n'y a mis que du poivre. 3. Je vais en France cet hiver, que vous y allies o non. 4. Ce marchand n'a pas l'air honnête, ne vous y fiez pas; évitez sa boutique; ny retournez pas. 5. Le maître dit qu'il a k cette page, et qu'il n'y trouve pas de faute 6. Essayez cet hôtel-là; j'y ai passé une fos une quinzaine. 7. Répondez à la lettre qu vient d'arriver, répondez-y sur-le-champ. 8 Madame Dupré est-elle chez elle?-Non, monsieur, elle est à la campagne. Depuis quand y est-elle ?-Une quinzaine. 9. Ne vous appro chez pas de la rivière, vous y pourriez tomber. 10. Vous y êtes, mon cher ami. 11. Combien en avez-vous offert? 12. Me céderez-vous des oranges et des citrons si vous en avez plus que Vous n'en avez besoin? 13. Je ne crois pas que ce raisin soit bon; je n'en prendrai qu'une demi-douzaine de kilogrammes. 14. Revene vous de la campagne ?-Oui, j'en reviens. Les routes y sont-elles mauvaises ?-Ne m'en parlez pas.* 15. Quant aux fraises et aux groseilles. si l'on en demande, donnez-en. 16. J'en ai oublié le texte, mais j'en ai retenu l'espri 17. Des mûres! apportez-nous-en donc une petite assiettée. 18. Demandez-lui si elle a de l'italien aujourd'hui. Demandez-lui s'il es a lu. 19. Si je reçois une poignée de glands en recevra-t-elle une aussi? 20. On se plint de lui et de nous.

EXERCISE XLIII. (page 344).

1. Elle me le vend; elle me la vendait; elle me les vendit 2. Je te les vends; je ne te s vends pas; est-ce que je te le vends? est-ce que je ne te les vends pas? 3. Ils nous les rendent; ils nous le rendaient; ils nous rendirent. 4. Nous vous les rendons; nous vous la rendons pas; vous le rendons-ne (or, and this is here the more usual practio est-ce que nous vous le rendons)? ne vous rendons-nous pas (or est-ce que nous ne ve le rendons pas)? 5. Je les lui fendrais ; to is lui fendrais ; il les leur fendrait. 6. Je veci que vous me les pendiez; je veux qu'il te pende; je veux qu'elle nous la pende. 7. voudrait que je le lui tondisse; il ne voud pas que nous les lui tondissions; elle voud que vous lui tondissiez ces moutons. & vous les fondrais si vous vouliez me répond 9. Il m'en vend; je t'en vends; tu lui en ver nous lui en vendons; vous leur en vender: vous en vendent. 10. Vous ne m'en re pas; m'en rendrez-vous? 11. Il m'y attent je ne t'y attendais pas; elle l'y attendit; i

Had the sense been complimentary, as with routes y sont-elles bonnes? "I can vouch for that "wo have been rendered, e.g., by je crois bien.

l'y attendit pas. 12. Vous y attendrions-nous (or est-ce que nous vous y attendrions)? 13. Descends-le-moi; descends-le-lui; descends-les à ton oncle. 14. Vendons-les-iui; ne la leur vendons pas. 15. Qu'il le torde; qu il lui réponde; qu'il vous morde; qu il ne l'entende pas. 16. Rendez-m'en; rendez-lui-en; rendeznous-en. 17. Attends-m'y; ne l'y attendons pas. 18. Je désirais qu'il vous répondît; je désirais qu'elle répondit à mes lettres.

EXERCISE XLIV. (page 438).

1. Here is our carriage coming; where is yours?-I have not ordered (did not order) mine; I shall ride. 2. I tell you that my cousin and yours (pl.) are right. That is your opinion, but it is not ours. 3. Do you wish to be one of our party?—I do not mind. 4. You have seen (you saw) my library and his; do you like them better than theirs? - Your libraries are very good, but theirs is better. 5. Is it of my pencil or yours that you make use (is it my pencil or your own you are using)?-I make use of mine, there is yours. 6. Make them understand that my views do not differ from theirs. It is not my business, it is thine. 7. With which penknife have you mended (did you mend) your quill? with his? --No, I mended it with mine. 8. Did she tell you that she was writing to my sisters after having written to yours?-She told us nothing. 9. She did not communicate her project to me because I did not wish to communicate mine to her. 10. Did you think (have you been thinking) of my affair?-No, I have not been thinking of it; I have only been thinking of minc. 11 Boy, what is there in your basket?— I have two ducks and three geese in it. 12. Are your sucking-pigs for sale?-They will not be so for three weeks. 13. Give my respects to your grandmother, and beg her to accept this (young) share and this brace of (young) partridges. 14. Are your turkey-cocks, ganders, and peacocks as big as mine ?-I should think so. 15. The Marquess of Carabas presents his compliments to your Majesty, and begs you to be so kind as to accept three warren rabbits and a brace of (young) pheasants. 16. Had your father good sport?-Oh, he did not return home unsuccessful; his game-bag was overflowing with hares and partridges. 17. How old should you say my she-ass is ?-To judge by her teeth she must be about fifteen years old. 18. The wild sow and her young were wallowing in a pool. 19 Your father related to me his adventure with the she-wolf and the cubs. 20. My goat has lost her kid; thy ewe has lost her lamb; would our cow lose her calf?

EXERCISE XLV. (page 439).

1. Se sert-il de ma voiture ou de la sienne? Il se sert de la mienne. 2. Etes-vous d'avis que votre père a raison et que le sien a raison? Je suis d'avis que mon père n'a jamais tort. 3. Dites-vous que votre sœur ne sera pas des nôtres? Elle voudrait bien êtres des vôtres, mais sa santé ne le permet pas. 4. Préférezvous notre lévrier au vôtre ? Je préfère le mien au vôtre. 5 Se serviront-ils des poulains

The words lui faire part were unfortunately omitted here.

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et des pouliches. 6. Fais-lui comprendre que ses vues sont aussi les miennes. 7. Avez-vous taillé cette plume avec son canif ou avec le vôtre ?-Avec le mien. 8. Doit-elle écrire à sa sœur après avoir écrit à la mienne? 9. Vous a-t-elle fait part de mon projet ou du sien? 10. Je lui ai dit que je n'avais pensé ni à son affaire ni à la tienne. 11. Ma petite, qu'est-ce qu'il y a dans ta hotte? J'y ai des poulets et des pigeonneaux. 12. Il a un serin et une serine à vendre. 13. Mon maître vous fait ses compliments et vous prie d'accepter une couple de faisans et un levraut. 14. Mon garçon, fais bien mes compliments à ton maître, et fais-lui mes remercîments. 15. Leurs majestés le roi et la reine font leurs remerciments au Marquis de Carabas. 16. Votre père (or monsieur votre père), a-t-il fait chou blanc (or est-il revenu bredouille)? Non, il a tiré un cerf, un chevreuil, et deux daims. 17. A juger par les dents de votre jument, je ne lui donnerais pas plus de quatre ou de cinq ans. 18. Nos porcs se vautrent dans votre mare. 19. Madame (or, as the case may be, mademoiselle) votre tante nous avait raconté son aventure avec le singe qui s'était saisi de sa colombe. 20. La ménagerie de M. W. contient deux lions, trois lionnes et leurs lionceaux, une couple d'ours, un tigre royal, et le petit d'une renarde qui est morte depuis peu.

EXERCISE XLVI. (page 531).

1. L'abeille, la sauterelle, le cri-cri-tout bourdonne et chante en été. 2. Le coucou criait au printemps; je voudrais que le coucou criât. 3. Le hanneton, aussi bien que l'abeille, la mouche et le colibri, bourdonne. 4. Les hiboux chuintent ou huent; je voudrais que l'hibou huât. 5. Les corbeaux croassaient

Elles

dans les arbres, les grenouilles coassaient dans l'étang. 6. L'alouette grisolle, le geai cageole, le merle siffle, le pinson ramage, seul le rossignol chante. 7. Dire que les merles, le serpent et l'oie sifflent, trahit une certaine pauvreté de la langue. 8. Les crocodiles mangent de la chair et du poisson; les éléphants mangent de l'herbe. 9 Les cigognes commenceront à bâtir dans une quinzaine ; mangeront-elles toutes les grenouilles? les mangeront. 10. Le moineau pépie même en hiver. 11. Nous les dérangeons; nous y songions; nous y plongeâmes nos bâtons; nous vous soulagerons; nous pataugerions. 12. Je voudrais qu'il les engageât à déloger. 13. Vous commencerez à vendanger mardi prochain; je veux que vous vendangiez lundi prochain. 14. Il la menace; il les plaçait; il le tança vertement; il le lancera. 15. Nous ne vous forçons pas; nous ne le pincions pas; ne sucez donc pas votre pouce. 16. J'en emploie; tu en noies; il n'en broie pas; elle en plie plus que vous. 17. Que nous les essuyions; que vous ne nous ennuyiez pas; ils balayaient; comme cet homme grasseye! comme cette femme coudoie le monde ! 18. Nous ne les pliions pas nous les liions; je ne dis pas que vous suppliez, mais que vous suppliiez. 19. Il le délie; il ne le reliait pas ne le renonça-t-il pas ? 20. Il grée un brick; nous gréons notre barque; agréez l'expression de mes regrets.

SOUND, LIGHT, AND HEAT.

IX.

LIGHT (continued).

ANOTHER very curious phenomenon resulting from the rectilinear propagation of light is that seen when the rays of light Inverted images from any object are caused to formed by a small aperture. pass through a very small aperture, such as a hole in a shutter, or a pinhole in a piece of cardboard. If into a darkened room the rays of light from external objects be allowed to pass through a small hole in a shatter, and be received upon a screen, the images of these external objects will be perceived upon the screen in their natural colours, but upside-down. (See fig. 41.) This is the secret of the camera obscura, with the

inversion of

in

This apparently wonderful phenomenon is easily explained by the knowledge of the fact that light is propagated Explanation of straight lines. Take an opaque images. screen having a small aperture. If any object, such as an arrow, be held outside the aperture, the rays from the two extremities of the arrow will obviously cross each other, and an inverted image of the arrow will be formed upon the screen. A simple but pleasing experiment in illustration of this inversion of images is the following. Take a piece of cardboard and make in it, about its centre, a rather large pin-hole; if now you hold it between a candle or lamp and a small screen, an inverted and enlarged image of the flame will be formed on the latter. (See fig. 42.)

A simple experiment.

board screen, say at a distance of two feet from the candle. Take a piece of paper the exact size of the cardboard screen and fold it carefully into four; if placed at a distance of one foot from the candle (that is, midway between it and the screen), it will be found that the shadow of a b c d will exactly cover the screen, A B C D, which is four times as large. Variations of this experiment will show that the same law holds true for light as for soundnamely, that the intensity varies inversely as

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paper, s, in the centre of which is a spot of grease formed by stearine. The lights are placed at each end of a scale, and along that scale the screen is moved until the spot of grease becomes invisible. This will obviously be when the amount of light on each side of the spot is exactly equal, for if a stronger light is behind, the spot will appear bright upon a dark ground, while if the stronger illumination be in front the spot will appear dark on a bright ground. The distance of the screen from each source of light is then measured, and their relative illuminating powers determined by the law of inverse squares as before.

Reflexion of

light.

We must now turn our attention to the reflexion of light, and the law by which regular reflexion is governed. All bodies reflect light, and it is only by this reflexion that opaque objects are visible to us; but such bodies as the page upon which this is printed reflect the light which falls upon them in every direction so as not to form an image, but to give rise only to the impression of a generally illuminated surface; such reflexion is termed irregular

FIG. 44.

the square of the distance. A full explanation of this law has already been given in the chapters on "Sound."

This important law affords us a ready means of determining the relative illuminative powers of various illuminating agents. Photometry. This branch of optics is termed "Photometry" (Greek phos, light; metron, a measure). The reader may devise a simple experiment to illustrate this method of gauging the illuminating powers of different bodies. Place a rod in front of a screen, as in fig 44, then take two lights, such as a lamp and a candle, and place them in such positions that

FIG. 46.

Smooth surfaces, such as glass or polished metal, reflect light in a perfectly regular manner, and in a perfectly definite direction. This so-called "regular" reflexion is that which we are about to consider.

of light.

The law which governs the regular reflexion of light is the same as that which has been fully explained in the chapters on "Sound," to which it also applies. Law of reflexion It is as follows: The angle of reflexion is always equal to the angle of incidence; and the incident and reflected rays are always in the same plane. Fig. 46 will assist in making the exact meaning of this law clear. Let A B represent a beam of light falling upon any polished flat surface, it will be reflected in a direction B C. AB is the incident ray, BC the reflected ray. If alperpendicular, D B, be drawn, it will be found that the angle A B D is always equal to the angle D B C. The former is the angle of incidence, the latter the angle of reflexion. Finally, the plane A B C-that is the plane of the paper-is the plane containing both incident and reflected rays.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

AND LITERATURE.

IX.

THE SECOND PERIOD OF ENGLISH

LITERATURE,

FROM THE DEATH OF CHAUCER TO THE ACCESSION OF QUEEN ELIZABETH.

(1400-1558.)

THE fifteenth century was not in England a time propitious to genius and learning. It

may rather be called a period of Barren period reaction and humiliation so far as after literature and general enlightenChaucer's time.

ment are concerned. The writer of the fifteenth century could not, with any regard for his own safety, allow his satiric fancy to sport, as Chaucer's did, with such legitimate subjects for satire as clerical sloth and priestly imposture. The heavy hand of ecclesiastical tyranny lay with ruthless weight apon the community. The persecution of the Lollards, begun under Henry IV., continued through the time of his successors. Such an outspoken poet as the author of The Vision of Piers Plowman, or even the author of The Canterbury Tales himself, would have been in danger of having his heresies shortly and sharply dealt with by the executioner. Religious persecution began in EngReligious land in the fifteenth century. It persecution under Henry IV.commenced at a time when the nation had only just awakened into intellectual activity-an activity that showed itself mainly in the direction of religious inquiry. Things bad begun make strong themselves by ill;" and Henry IV., to strengthen the foundations of his usurped throne, bought the favour of the clergy by placing in their hands the unhallowed weapon of persecution. Never was a more complete illustration of the truth put by Shakespeare into the mouth of the legate Pandulph, declaring that

tyranny is more depressing to the human faculties than continued submission.

But the day of emancipation was to come, surely and fully, though the time was not yet. To Henry IV. might be applied the words of scathing anger hurled by Gray's Bard at the supposed murderer of his companions:"Fond, impious man! Think'st thou yon sanguine cloud,

Raised by thy breath, hath quenched the orb of day? To-morrow he repairs the golden flood,

And warms the nations with redoubled ray."

That morrow came when, in the glory of the Elizabethan era, the nation forgot the long years of havoc that "ran their destined course" in the Wars of the Roses, and the confusion of change that distracted the country during the reign of all but the last and greatest of the Tudor sovereigns. There was another cause that veiled the morning of English poetry and literature generally after it had dawned brilliantly with Chaucer-for that bright hour of dawn was succeeded by a cold and inclement morning; or, to quote the capital illustration given by Warton in his History of English Poetry, "Chaucer may be con

Chaucer's

sidered as a genial day coming standard of early in an English spring; its excellence not cloudless skies, brilliant sun, and maintained. sudden warmth, fill our hearts with the visionary prospect of a speedy summer, and we fondly anticipate a long continuance of gentle gales and vernal serenity." But the genial day was but an exceptional phenomenon. to be followed by renewed glooms of winter, and by nipping frosts and searching and eager winds. Thus the immediate successors of Chaucer seem associated rather with the harsh wintry rigour that preceded him than with the genial glow of spring diffused around him by the Father of English Poetry. The night of barbarism and ignorance descended again upon England during the fifteenth century, not to be dispelled until the sun of genius

rose

more brightly than ever, in the full radiance that illuminated the glories of the Elizabethan era.

Religious persecution was the first great reason of the literary darkness of England; in the wars of York and Lancaster we find the second. The patronage of the great was in those days the very breath of life to the poet and the scholar. It was in the sunshine of princely favour that the flower of poetry unfolded its petals; as in a former age, an Augus tus and a Mæcenas were necessary to the wellbeing of a Virgil, a Horace, or an Ovid. In Italy, at the period Italy and in question, this patronage was England in the ungrudgingly, nay, liberally given." contrasted.

fifteenth century

Such rulers as the Medici of Florence considered the patronage of the poets of Italy at once their duty and their preroga tive; but in England princes and nobles were employing all their energies, straining their means, and pledging their credit in prosecuting the great struggle of the rival claimants to the throne. They had neither time nor attention nor assistance to bestow on scholars and bookmen; and so great was the demoralization