lebhaftesten Farben; sie ist auch zahllayp'-haf-tes'-ten far'-ben zee ist onch tsahlreicher als die größere, mit welcher fie ry-cher als dee groess'-er-e mit vel'-cher zee Raben fich nicht vermischt. Gleich dem zich nicht ferr-misht glych dame rah'-ben fitzt dieser Vogel gern auf den Gipfeln zitst dee'-zer fo'-gel gayrrn orf dane gyp'-feln der Bäume. Wann die Hiße des Tages dare boi'-me vann dee hit-se dess tal-ges am größten ist versteckt er sich unter am groess'-ten ist fer-steckt' airr zich un'-ter das Laub. Sein Schrei ist dem Worte voiko dass lowb zine shry ist dame vor'-te voi'-ko ähnlich. Mit diesem Rufe lockt er die ayn'-lich mit dee'-zem roo-fe lockt airr dee Weibchen, welche ihrer zwanzig und vibe-chen vel'-che ee-rer tscant-sich unt mehr auf den Bäumen umber fißen. mairr owff dane boy'-men um-hair' zit-sen Die schönen Männchen werden oft dee shoe'-nen men'-chen vairr-den offt

gefangen;

tainous, where rise Monte Rosa, the culminating point in the country, to 15,217, and the Matterhorn to 14,705 feet. In the heart of the country are the Bernese Alps, where the Finsteraarhorn and the Jungfrau rise to 14,026 and 13,671 feet respectively. The Jura mountains extend along the north-west border. The valleys are remarkable for their fertility and beauty, and form a striking contrast to the rugged heights surrounding them. Several important rivers of Europe, as the Rhine, Rhone, Ticino, and Inn, take their rise in Switzerland, but do not attain any great size within the territory. The principal of the other rivers are the Aar, Thur, and Emmen. The lakes are numerous, and many of them are of great extent. The principal are those of Geneva, Constance, Lucerne, Brienz, Thun, Neufchatel, Wallenstadt, Zurich, Zug, and portions of Maggiore and Lugano. The climate varies greatly with the elevation, but is generally severe. The line of perpetual snow is here about 9,000 feet. In the lower parts the climate is pure and healthy, but in

some of the

ge-fang'-en

Alpine

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

IX.

SWITZERLAND.

SWITZERLAND, an inland country of Europe, having north, Germany; east, Austria; south, Italy; and west, France. Lat. 45° 50' to 47° 50' N.; long. 5° 55' to 10° 30′ E. It is about 210 miles in length from east to west, by 140 in breadth, and has an area of 15,982 square miles, or little more than half that of Scotland. Population (1880), 2,846,102, or three-fourths that of Scotland. Switzerland is characterised by the beauty and sublimity of its scenery. Snow-capped mountains look down upon valleys of vineyards and cornfields, while glaciers, avalanches, cataracts, craggy precipices, and deep chasms, all give variety and beauty to the scene.

The southern portion is the most moun

The

herbs, mosses, and lichens. About a sixth part of the surface is covered with forests. country is more pastoral than agricultural, and cattle, horses, sheep, goats, and swine, constitute the chief wealth of the population. About one-ninth of the land is arable, and though well cultivated, the grain produced is not equal to the wants of the people. The chief agricultural products are wheat, barley, rye, potatoes, flax, and hemp. In some parts the vine is largely cultivated. The forests abound with game, and the rivers and lakes with excellent fish. The mineral wealth is not great. Coal and iron are found in some parts, and mines of lead, copper, and zinc are wrought. Salt is also obtained. The chief manufactures are woollen, linen and cotton goods, silk, leather, watches and jewellery. Several of these have made considerable progress within the last few years. Switzerland also carries on an important trade, although it has few facilities for that purpose. The chief exports are woollen, cotton, linen and silk goods, lace, watches, jewellery, cattle, sheep, dairy produce, timber, wine; imports, colonial

produce, wheat, salt, leather, raw cotton, hemp, flax. There are 1600 miles of railway in operation.

Switzerland is a confederation of twenty-two distinct cantons. The legislative body is the Federal Assembly, which has the exclusive right of declaring war, concluding treaties of peace, or entering into alliances with other countries. It is composed of a National Council, consisting of representatives chosen for three years by the people in the proportion of one representative for every 20,000 inhabitants in each canton, making 145 in all; and a Council of States of fortyfour members, being two for each canton. The Federal Assembly nominates for three years the members of the Federal Council, in whom the executive power is vested. The Federal Tribunal is composed of nine members and the same number of substitutes, nominated by the Federal Assembly for six years. It decides in all civil matters between the cantons. Each canton is independent as regards. its internal administration. The regular army

525

miles in length, and 100 in general breadth, but reaches in the north 380 miles. Area 114,380 square miles; population (1880), 28,437,091. It is divided into 69 provinces; and the largest towns with their populations are Naples, 458,614; Milan. 292,524; Rome, the capital, 289,321.

Italy is separated from the rest of Europe by the Alps, which extend in a semicircular direction from the Gulf of Genoa to the head of the Adriatic. They enclose the fertile and highly cultivated basin of the Po, for the most

part a great plain 250 miles in length by 150 in width, and not much above the level of the sea. The Apennines take their rise from the Maritime Alps of France, and traverse the entire length of the peninsula. They send off in their course numerous branches, enclosing valleys, which frequently open out into extensive plains. The highest point is Monte Corno, 9,810 feet. Westward from the main chain, near the Bay of Naples, is the volcano of Vesuvius; and in Sicily that of Mount Etna, which rises to the height of 10,840 feet. The entire country is noted for the beauty and variety of its scenery. It possesses numerous lakes, some of which are of great extent. The principal rivers

amounts to 117,500 men. The estimated revenue for 1881 was £1,629,660, and the expenditure £1,638,220. Education is very generally diffused among all classes. The Protestants number 1,667,109, and the Roman Catholics 1,160,782. German is spoken

by

2,030,792,

French by 608,007, and Italian by 161,923. The principal towns, with their populations, are: Bern, the federal capital, 44,087; Geneva, 50,943; Zurich, 25,102.

ITALY.

THE kingdom of Italy comprises that country of southern Europe easily recognized from its resemblance to a boot, together with the large islands of Sicily and Sardinia, and numerous smaller islands. It lies between lat. 36° 35' and 46° 40′ N., and long. 6° 30' and 18° 30' E.; and is bounded on the north by the Alps, which separate it from Austria and Switzerland, west by France and the Mediterranean, south by the Mediterranean, and east by the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic. It is about 700

in the north are the Adige and the Po, with its numerous affluents, the largest of which are the Ticino, Adda, Ogli, and Mincio. The only other river of importance is the Tiber, which flows through Rome. The climate varies considerably in different parts. the north it resembles that

In

of the adjoining countries, and is of considerable severity; in the central parts it is more genial and sunny, and in the south it is almost tropical. On the whole it is dry, mild, and salubrious, except in a few marshy districts. The chief grain crops are wheat, maize, oats, barley, and rye. Rice is cultivated in the marshy districts in the south, and in the valley of the Po; flax, hemp, cotton, and tobacco, are grown to a considerable extent in many parts. Grapes and olives generally cultivated, and oranges, lemons.

are

citrons, pomegranates, figs, peaches, and apricots, are among the other fruits. The sugar cane is also cultivated, and the rearing of the silkworm largely carried on. The horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and swine are numerous. Iron, copper, lead, antimony, and other metals are found, but mining is little attended to. Marble of uncommon beauty is found in various parts. The manufactures are few and unimportant. The chief are silk, woollen and linen stuffs, glass, porcelain, paper, and jewellery. The fisheries are prosecuted along the coasts. The chief exports are wine, oil, silk, wool, honey, straw hats, sulphur, cattle, fruit, vegetables; imports, corn, cotton goods, hardware, machinery, etc. Value of exports (1880), £45,240,000; imports, £48,992,000. Trade is chiefly carried on with France, England, and Austria. Length of railways in operation, 5,147 miles. The established religion is the Roman Catholic, but other sects are tolerated. Education is in a very backward state, but music. poetry, sculpture, and painting are cultivated with success.

Formerly Italy comprised the various states of Sardinia, the two Sicilies, the Pontifical States, the Lombardo-Venetian provinces of Austria, the grand duchy of Tuscany, the duchies of Parma and Modena. and the republic of San Marino. These have all been united into one kingdom, under the king of Sardinia, now king of Italy. The executive power is vested in the king, the legislative in the king and the two houses of parliamentthe Senate and the Chamber of Deputies,-the members of the latter being elected by the people. The effective army numbers 736,502 men, in addition to which the territorial and active militia number 979,293 men. The fleet consists of 69 vessels with 478 guns, and 15,055 officers and men. The estimated revenue for 1881 was £57,380,894; expenditure £57,068,479; and interest on national debt £19,747,890.

THE SYNTAX OF THE VERB.

Oratio Directa and Oratio Obliqua.

WHEN a speech is reported in the very words in which it was uttered by the speaker, it is called oratio directa-as in Ita dicit, Ego vos amo, thus he speaks, I love you. Here the words ego vos amo are in oratio directa, because they are the very words uttered by the speaker.

But when a speech is reported not in the exact words in which it was spoken, but so as to make the speaker the third person instead of the first, it is called oratio obliqua, or indirect speech-as dicit se vos amare, he says that he loves you. Here se vos amare are in oratio obliqua, as they give us not the exact words

I. All statements in principal sentences the indicative mood in the oratio recta bee c infinitives in the oratio obliqua.

II. Those relative sentences in which qui is or nam is, quum et tum, etc., have the verbs in the infinitive. Other relative senter: have their verbs in the subjunctive.

III. Questions in the indicative in the recta are, if closely dependent on a ver asking, put in the subjunctive; but. if a the infinitive, if of the first or third persG & the subjunctive. if of the second person: e.g.-quid facio becomes quid (se) facere. quid facis quid (ille) facent quid facis quid (illum) farm But, if these questions closely follow & ve of asking, or inquiry, or informing, the v will all three stand in the subjunctive-a i Rogavit quid (ipse, ille, etc.) faceret, fot three alike.

IV. All subordinate sentences, as als sentences in the subjunctive or imperative 1 the oratio recta, are put in the subjunctive 3 the oratio obliqua, with few exceptions

V. When an indicative mood is found in midst of the oratio obliqua, it expresses t assertion of the narrator, not of the pwhose speech is being reported.

Now, there are two kinds of sentences wi may be converted from direct to in re oblique narration-first, unconditional tences, secondly, conditional sentences; A. this may be effected in the manner repres on the opposite page.

Exercises.

Translate into English the following passa from Latin authors :

Cæsar legatis respondit, diem se ad de randum scripturum esse.' Ariovistus ad Casin legatos mittit se velle de his rebus agere

eo.

Quis potest esse tam aversus a ver. neget hæc omnia, quæ videmus, deorum 2 mortalium potestate administrari. Arvis » respondit amicitiam Populi Romani sita z mento et præsidio, non detrimento e oportere; idque se eâ spe petisse. Populum Romanum stipendium remittata dedititii subtrahantur, non minus libenter ww recusaturum Populi Romani amicitiam q appetierit. Quòd multitudinem German in Galliam transducat, id se sui muniendi, Galliæ impugnandæ causâ facere; eas testimonium esse, quòd nisi rogatus non vere". et quod bellum non intulerit, sed defent Se priùs in Galliam venisse, quàm l'11' Romanum. Ambiorix dixit habere rationem officii pro beneficiis Cæsaris; m orare Titurium pro hospitio, ut suæ ac mil saluti consulat: magnam manum German conductam Rhenum transisse: hane at biduo. "Si veteris contumelia oblivisti vekt nam etiam recentium injuriarum depast

posse?" Hec quum animadvertisset, convocato consilio omniumque ordinum ad id consilium a lhibitis centurionibus, vehementer eos incusavit: primùm, quòd aut quam in partem, aut quo concilio ducerentur, sibi quærendum aut cogitandum putarent. Ariovistum se consule cupidissimé Populi Romani amicitiam appetisse: cur hunc tam temerè quisquam ab officio discessurum judicaret? Sibi quidem persuaderi, cognitis suis postulatis

ORATIO RECTA.

1. I am come, because you ask, Venio, quia rogas.

2. I came because you asked, Veni, quia rogavisti.

3. I do not prevent you from going,

Non prohibeo quin eas.

527

a soothsayer (aruspex). Aristotle says that certain animals are born which live one day only. It is announced to Cæsar that the Campanians are willing to do what he wished. The soldiers announce to Cæsar that they are prepared to open the gates of Corfinium, and to do what he commanded. The general sent word to the consul (saying) that he wished to confer with him on certain matters as quickly as possible. Indignation aroused the commons

hibere.

OBLIQUA ORATIO PAST.

Dixit se, quia ille rogaret, venire. Dixit se, quia ille rogavisset, venisse.

Dixit se, quin ille iret, non prohibere.

be punished,

Nisi hoc agis or ages. punire.

5. May I die if I do not rejoice, Moriar nisi gaudeo.

6. You may ask what I am doing,

Roges quid faciam.

ORATIO DIRECTA.

1. Aio te, si peccas, doles,

I say, "If you sin, you grieve."

2. Aio te, si peccabis. dolebis,

I say," If you will sin, you will grieve."

3. Aio" si peccaveris, dolueris."

I say, "If you shall have sinned, you will have grieved."

4. Aio" si pecces, doleas,"

I say," If you may sin, you may grieve." 5. Aio "si peccares, doleres,"

I say, "If you should sin, you would grieve." 6. Aiebam si peccavisses, doluisses,"

I did say, "If you had sinned, you would have grieved."

7. Aiebam si peccares, doluisses,"

I did say, "If you would sin, you would grieve."

8. Aiebam si peccavisses dolores,"

I did say, that had you sinned you would grieve.

atque æquitate conditionum perspecta, eum neque suam neque Populi Romani gratiam repudiaturum. Quòd si furore atque amentia impulsus bellum intulisset, quid tandem

vererentur? aut cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent?

Translate into Latin :

Cato used to say that he wondered that a soothsayer did not laugh when he had seen

(saying), "They were now attacked like open enemies, they were robbed of their bread and their living." All the tribune of the commons were furious (they asked), "What did that mean? Could anything be more arrogant?" He asked the crowd, "When could they venture to demand redress against them?" Cicero made answer, "If they wish to lay down their arms, they can use him as their coadjutor, and send ambassadors to Cæsar." "If, however, he

should be bent on prosecuting the war against them, (he bade him) remember the original prowess of the Helvetii. Ariovistus made answer to the embassy that if he had wanted anything of Cæsar he would have come to him." I say that if you do this, you gain much. I say that if you had done this you would have gained much. But some one may say "Virtue is to be commended." He said he came because you asked him. He said that he would be punished, unless he did this thing. He asked him what he was doing, and why. Themistocles informed Xerxes that steps were being taken (id agi) that the bridge should be destroyed which he had constructed over the Hellespont. Regulus declined to give an opinion, (contending that) while he was pledged on oath to an enemy he was no longer a senator of Rome. In doing a kindness we must consider upon what occasion, to what persons, in what manner, and for what reasons we should give our gifts. Let me know how long and why you intend staying at Rome. When you set sail for Greece, may the skies be clear and the winds favourable.

motive power is generated at every spot where work is to be done. This indicates at once that the bodily machinery must be very complex in structure.

Moreover, the work done by the organism is subdivided into a greater number of kinds than in any machine; this must inSubdivision of crease the number of separate parts.

parts. All, however, are under a central government, with subordinate local governments; these have definite communications with the other structures to the minutest degree.

What are the points of difference between the oratio directa and oratio obliqua? Give the five general rules to be observed in turning oratio directa into oratio obliqua, and examples of each. Give also the special rules for converting conditional and unconditional sentences into oratio obliqua, and give an example of each. When an indicative mood is found in the midst of the oratio obliqua, does it express an assertion of the person whose speech is being reported? If not, what does it express?

CLASSIFICATION OF
STRUCTURES.

The parts of the body may be classified as follows:

1. Hard structures, forming the framework of the organism, and protecting vital parts. Example, bones.

2. Parts fastened to these, to move the body entirely or partially, relatively to external objects or to other portions of itself; including means of offence and defence. the procuring of food. etc. Example, muscles.

3. Organs for chewing and swallowing solid and liquid food. and transforming it into the shape in which it can be used as bodily fuel, and the useless parts got rid of. Examples, mouth, stomach, liver, intestine.

4. Organs for perfecting and distributing the prepared fuel, and collecting the products of burning. Examples, heart, bloodressels. lymphatics.

5. Organs for taking in gaseous food and getting rid of gaseous waste. Example, lungs.

HUMAN ANATOMY.

BY G. T. BETTANY M.A., B.Sc.

I.

INTRODUCTORY.

nose, ears, tongue, skin. 8. Seats of central and local government. Examples, brain, spinal cord, nerve ganglia. 9. Means of communicating impressions from organs of sense (7), and from internal parts of body, to central organs (8): also means of distributing to every part orders to do work. Example, nerves.

10. Organs of reproduction.