own hands. Twenty-seven of the principal Protestant nobles perished on the scaffold. With treachery worthy of an Eastern despot, Ferdinand, who at first affected to pursue a policy of conciliation, and thus emboldened

to

many fugitives to return Degradation Bohemia in the confident exof Bohemia. pectation of amnesty, suddenly

let loose all the horrors of vengeance on the unhappy country. Numbers of men of importance were punished by entire confiscation of their property. Father Lamormain, or Lämmermann, the Jesuit confessor of the emperor, received an enormous share of the plunder for distribution among his confraternity. Thirty thousand families were compelled to emigrate; and the utraquists, who had so long defied the sword of the empire, found in the arts of the never-sleeping society of Jesus a more persistent and a more formidable foe. From Bohemia, the cradle of the Reformation in Continental Europe, all religious and political freedom was banished, from the day of the miserable defeat at the "White Mountain." The Protestant Union was soon afterwards dissolved, and the triumph of Ferdinand over his enemies seemed complete.

Tyranny of Ferdinand II.

But the emperor now committed the error he repeated on several occasions during his subsequent career, and each time with disastrous consequences to himself. He miscalculated the extent of his triumph, and by attempting too much, rekindled the flame of war. He made no secret of his intention to win supremacy for the Catholic faith once more in Germany. He outlawed several German princes without observing the legal forms prescribed by immemorial usage. He sent Tilly, the chief general of the League, into the Palatinate to carry out the sentence against the ruler of that unhappy territory with fire and sword; and thus raised against his throne and his faith the resistance of desperation. Three remarkable men-the adventurous Duke Christian of Brunswick, the pious Margrave George Frederick of Baden-Durlach, and Ernest Count Mansfeld, the greatest partisan chief of the time-rose up to defend the Protestant cause. Christian of Brunswick, who called himself "God's friend and every priest's enemy," entered Westphalia with a hired army, and exercised vengeance upon abbeys and convents for the wrongs of his relative, the exiled queen of Bohemia, Elizabeth. Mansfeld contrived to raise a force of 20,000 men, and soon became so formidable that the exiled Elector Palatine ventured to return to his country under the protection of this formidable ally. George Frederick of Baden formed a junction with Mansfeld, and defeated Tilly and the army of the League at Wiesloch. But they unfortunately

Battles of Wiesloch and Wimpfea.

divided their forces, and George Frederick was defeated at Wimpfen, and only escaped capture by the self-devotion of a regiment of 400 men of Pforzheim, who sacrificed themselves for him with a heroism worthy of Thermopyla; and Christian of

Brunswick's defeat by the veteran troops of Tilly at Höchst, and the still more disastrous day of Stadtlohn appeared to destroy the last hopes of the Protestants. Christian of Brunswick and Mansfeld were obliged to fly from Germany. Frederick had already betaken himself to Holland, where he lived precariously enough for many years. He had

lost the confidence of all his friends; and his father-in-law, King James of England, as Harte quaintly informs us, "supplied him only with peaceable advice and scholastic quotations, instead of money and legions." Ferdinand was now secure in his triumph; and hastened to revenge himself on those who had dared to defy his authority. The territories of the Elector Palatine were bestowed on Maximilian of Bavaria; and persecution of the Protestants in the Austrian dominions, in the archbishopric of Mayence, and in other parts of Germany, testified to the intention of the emperor to establish rigid uniformity of faith throughout the whole of his dominions.

THE FRIENDLY COUNSELLOR.

FRIENDS, AND HOW TO CHOOSE THEM.

FEW circumstances have a more important influence upon the success of a career than the company which is kept and the friendships which are formed. From the earliest days of school-life to the closing scene of our existence character is being shaped and moulded by the influences which surround us; and this process is most active just when the youth makes his entrance into the busy world, fresh from home and early associations, eager to secure to himself a host of friends. That "you may know a man's character by the company which he keeps," is a saving as truthful as it is ancient, and it is therefore essential that a wise choice of friends and companions should be made in early life. The student at college, the apprentice in the workshop, and the young man in business, are thrown amongst associates of varying mental and moral characteristics, and there is a danger that upon their first entry into life they may yield only too readily to influences which tend to produce habits and modes of thought the reverse of desirable. In order to counteract this natural tendency, nothing can be more effective than a firm friendship with one capable of affording sympathy, support, and guidance in the mazy path which a youth is called upon to tread. A true and judicious friend is to such a youth a veritable sheet-anchor, which often effectually prevents the goodly vessel from drifting on the numerous hidden rocks which lie ahead.

It is matter of regret that so few parents, and especially fathers, succeed in making friends of their children. Although justly re

garded with affection, and even with reverence, a father is in too many cases looked upon by his sons as the last person in the world to whom they would confide their thoughts, or from whom they would expect sympathy and guidance in days of difficulty and doubt. Yet, in the rare cases where there is perfect confidence between a father and his sons, how valuable the guidance which his ripe experience can afford them-how many the pitfalls he may enable them to escape!

But even where a true friendship exists between a young man and his father, there is always a desire for some congenial companion of about his own age, to whom his inmost thoughts may be communicated, and with whom pleasures and sorrows may alike be shared. No mistake is more unfortunate than that of supposing that a number of intimate companions preclude the necessity or supply the want of a bosom friend. Companionship with a select few is a necessity, and if the companions be judiciously chosen, a great benefit; but nothing can efficiently supply the want of some intimate friend who can afford that true and brotherly sympathy which only one who is but little less than part of one's self can possibly supply. Nature, with her characteristic adaptation of means to ends, has implanted within us desires which lead us to satisfy this want of our moral nature; and we instinctively form a close friendship in the very morning of our existence.

But very early friendships seldom last throughout life, and it is usually necessary to select a fresh confidant from our companions at a time when we are enabled to exercise some judgment in the choice, and are not so completely at the mercy of circumstances as is the case in childhood. But unfortunately there are friends and friends, and it is necessary to bear in mind the tests by which we may distinguish false from true.

The first great requisite in a friend is sincerity, and this necessarily includes uprightness and truthfulness both in word and deed. Never were truer words penned, even by the great dramatist himself, than those which he puts into the mouth of Polonius:

"To thine own self be true; And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man." And the converse of this aphorism is also true-namely, that the man who is thoroughly sincere is incapable of baseness even to an enemy. In making a friend it is therefore of the first moment to thoroughly assure ourselves of his sincerity, and at the same time to carefully watch our own heart and see that that too is true to our chosen friend.

Another important requisite in a friend is complete candour. He is undoubtedly the truest friend who has the courage to tell us gently, though firmly, of our faults and shortcomings. Without captious fault-finding, he should point out errors of judgment, of speech, and of action, and should be willing to help us to become better and wiser. But to do this he must possess the requisite qualifications; and it is therefore wise to select as a friend one upon

39

whose judgment we can implicitly rely and in whose thorough honesty we can place unbounded trust. As a general rule, it is better for a young man to select as a friend one somewhat older and more experienced than himself, but this depends very largely upon natural disposition. Some natures are strong and selfreliant, others soft and yielding, and therefore needful of support; each must choose for himself the most suitable companion in this respect, and inclination when controlled by judgment is usually a reliable guide.

As a general rule, to which there are but few exceptions, it is a great mistake to choose a friend from those whose position in life widely differs from our own. If the station occupied by an intimate friend be much higher than one's own, expenses are likely to be incurred unsuited to one's pocket, and habits may be acquired unsuitable to one's own position, and therefore undesirable. If these habits and expenses be successfully guarded against, there is an uncomfortable feeling of inferiority which interferes greatly with that close intimacy which is an essential in true friendship. On the other hand, it is a still worse error to choose an intimate friend from those in a much inferior position in life, unless, as very rarely happens, the favoured individual be above the average of his class in tastes, habits and acquirements. It is a common error to suppose that we can raise an intimate friend to our own level. This does sometimes happen, but it is the exception rather than the rule, and is in nearly every case a very hazardous experiment. It is much more likely that the superior mind will descend to the level of the inferior than that the reverse will happen. We must, however, ask our readers to thoroughly understand that we by no means intend to imply that the class or caste-feeling should be greatly considered in the formation of a friendship. The thoroughly honest, upright man of refinement and culture is worthy the friendship of a prince, though he belong to the lowest rank in society; but unless he be all this it would be unwise for one in a high position to cultivate his acquaintance on the footing of an intimate friend. It is often right and necessary to associate with those Occupying an inferior station in society to ourselves, but it does not necessarily follow that we are to choose from such our bosom friend.

A very desirable condition of a friendship is a tolerable similarity of tastes. That some of the most enduring friendships have subsisted between persons of very different tastes it is impossible to deny, but as a general rule persons of completely opposite likings are not suitable for companions, and still less for intimate friends. If, for instance, a young man of studious habits, and having a disinclination to the more exciting forms of recreation, ally himself in close friendship with one to whom books are a bugbear, and who takes delight in the most exciting relaxations, the friendship is not generally either a beneficial or a lasting one. Contrasts in character frequently blend beautifully together; opposed tastes and inclinations rarely or never. The

same qualifications which are required in a confidential friend are to a less extent necessary in our acquaintances. Almost every one has an inner circle of select friends in whose company he delights to spend his leisure hours; and if this inner circle be composed of men of high moral tone and of pure tastes, it matters but little what may be the general character of those with whom we may at other times be compelled to associate. In choosing those friends who, though intimate with us, are not bosom friends, it is wise to see that they are above all things else pure in life and character, if we desire to be so ourselves. No one can "touch pitch and not be defiled." However we may pride ourselves upon being able to resist temptation, we cannot possibly avoid contamination if we breathe a polluted moral atmosphere. Whatever opinions may be held upon matters theological, it is clear to every one who thinks for himself that we cannot set before us too high an ideal of moral beauty and perfection. Without some such ideal, no man, or body of men, can possibly come to much good; and if we would possess such an ideal we must associate with those whose moral standard is at least as high as our own.

Finally, we would impress upon our readers the absolute necessity of thorough loyalty towards the friends whom they have deliberately chosen. Be careful never to wrong a friend even by a thought, and above all avoid saying anything behind their backs which you would not care to say before their faces. If you have any cause of complaint, real or imaginary, go to your friend and tell him candidly

These experiments naturally lead us to our second generalization, which is that there are two kinds of electricity-one similar to that generated on Second generalglass by friction with silk, the other like that developed on sealing-wax by friction with flannel and each electricity repels its own kind and attracts the opposite

about it, and in this way much misunderstanding may be entirely avoided. The man who keeps a supposed grievance against a friend rankling in his own breast is a traitor to his bond of friendship, and possibly a needless disturber of his own serenity.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

II.

FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY (continued). THE facts stated in our last article may be proved in a variety of ways. For instance, we

may electrify a stick of sealingFurther experi- wax and suspend it by placing it ments. in a small wire stirrup. hung from some support by silk tape. Then if we bring another excited stick of sealing-wax near it, we

kind. In other words, bodies similarly electrified repel each other, bodies oppositely electrified attract each other.

To this we may add that it is generally said that bodies which exhibit no electrical excitement possess equal quantities of the two kinds of electricity, which are mingled together so as to neutralize each other, while, by rubbing, this equilibrium is disturbed by the separation of the two electricities, one going to the rubber, the other to the substance rubbed.

At one time it was usual to call the electricity developed on glass by friction with silk vitre

resinous electri

ous electricity, Vitreous and and that deve-' loped on wax

cities.

by friction with flannel resinous electricity; but these terms are now disused, as it is found that the nature of the electricity produced on any substance depends upon the material with which it is rubbed, and also upon other conditions, such as temperature, etc. We may, for instance, get from glass the same electricity as we do from wax, if the glass be ground and rubbed with flannel instead of silk; or even by holding an ordinary glass tube in an alcohol flame it becomes negatively electrified.

It is therefore usual to employ instead of ritreous the term positive, and instead of resinous the term negative: the former usually being denoted by the sign Use of the terms +(plus), and the latter being positive and negative. usually denoted by the sign (minus). In this signification we shall use these signs and terms throughout these lessons.

In the following list, if any two of the substances named be rubbed together, the one nearest the top of the list will be found positive to the one below it. Thus, if glass be rubbed with silk the glass will be positive and the silk

With regard to the theory of electricity, no thoroughly satisfactory explanation of electrical phenomena has yet been Theoretical given, but it is usual to adopt the explanation of so-called "two-fluid theory" which the foregoing is embodied in our second general - facts. statement. It must, however, be thoroughly understood that this theory or hypothesis is rather an expression than an explanation of the phenomena of electricity, and must by no means be regarded as a final and thoroughly satisfactory solution of their various features, but rather should be looked upon as an hypothesis which is temporarily made use of until some more comprehensive and trustworthy theory shall take its place.

For the further elucidation of the elementary facts of electricity it will be necessary

41

How to construct an electroscope.

The construction of a gold-leaf electroscope is a somewhat longer process, but is nevertheless simple and the materials inexpensive. For it we require a large glass flask, which must be thoroughly clean and dry; a cork, through which a hole must be bored, and into the hole about an inch of narrow glass tubing fitted. In addition, we shall require a straight piece of brass wire about nine inches long; a small disc of zinc or brass, from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter; and some Dutch metal or gold leaf.

Provided with these, fill the small piece of glass tube with resin or shell-lac, or with a mixture of both; then solder your metal disc to one end of the wire, making a hole in the centre of the disc in which to fix the wire. Having done this, warm the wire and push it through the resin in the glass tube of the cork of the flask, leaving some two or three inches of the wire, and also the disc, above the cork, and therefore outside the flask. Next bend the other end of the wire into a hook, and attach with gum a leaf of Dutch metal on to each side of the hook; place the cork with the gold leaves, etc., in the flask, and your electroscope will be complete, and will resemble what is shown in fig. 5.

The cutting of the leaves of Dutch metal, and attaching them to the wire, will require some care, but the exercise of a little patience will soon overcome any temporary difficulties which may stand in the way of ultimate success. It is best to cut the Dutch metal with a large pair of shears (so as to make only one cut), holding it between tissue paper.

for our readers to construct two more pieces of simple apparatus: the first of these is what is called a proof plane, the second is known as a gold-leaf electroscope.

The best way to make a proof plane is to get an ebonite penholder (or a piece of flat varnished glass), and attach to it Fow to make a with shell-lac a circular or elliptic proof-plane. disc of cardboard covered with metallic paper, as in our illustration (fig. 7). The use of the proof plane is to take, as it were, samples of electricity from an electrified

body, and convey them to the How to use the electroscope for examination, in proof-plane. order that we may determine the kind of electricity with which a body is charged. The metallic paper with which the disc is covered, being a good conductor, readily accepts electricity from any electrified body with which it may be brought in contact; and the ebonite or varnished glass handle, being a non-conductor, the electricity is unable to escape from the disc, and we are thus enabled to convey it to the electroscope for examination.

an electroscope.

Having constructed the electroscope, the next thing is to "charge" it-that is, to electrify the gold leaves. This may be done in one of two ways. It How to charge may be done by holding in contact with the disc an electrified body, such as excited glass or wax, or a proof plane which has been momentarily in contact with an excited body. The leaves will be seen to diverge; and by bringing a similarly electrified body to the one just used near the electroscope, the leaves will be still further repelled by each other, showing that in this case the electroscope has been charged with the same electricity as that with which the charging body was endowed.

The rationale of this method of charging an electroscope, which is known as charging it by "conduction," is as follows:-The, (we will suppose,) excited glass rod being placed in contact

Theoretical explanation.

duction." In this case the electrified glass rod is held near, but not touching the disc of the electroscope, when the leaves will diverge. While it is thus being held, the disc is momentarily touched with the finger, and immediately afterwards the rod is withdrawn; the leaves will then first collapse, and afterwards diverge.

The explanation of this is as follows:When the glass rod is held near to the electroscope the positive electricity is repelled and the negative attracted by it. When the finger touches the electroscope disc the positive electricity escapes and the negative, set free by the subsequent removal of the rod, diffuses itself, and the leaves diverge with negative electricity.

THE FRIENDLY COUNSELLOR.

HOW TO PASS EXAMINATIONS.

PART II. THE ORDEAL.

IN our first paper on examinations (see page 19) we endeavoured to point out the course to be pursued in preparing for one: and we shall now proceed to give our readers a few useful hints as to the best way of passing an examination.

Assuming that due preparation has been made, we will suppose that the student presents him or herself at the appointed day and hour for the examination. The first point to be observed is punctuality. Allow plenty of time for reaching the place of examination, as in this way flurry and excitement may be avoided, coolness being a very essential thing for success. Arrived in the examination room shortly before the time appointed for the commencement of the terrible ordeal, endeavour to collect your thoughts. Nervousness very heavily handicaps a candidate, and everything should be done to avoid it. Some persons are much more liable to this than others; but we would remind those who approach an examination with fear and trembling that if careful preparation has been made it is extremely unlikely that any question can be asked which

they will be unable to answer; and if they feel inclined to envy the apparent coolness of other candidates, they should also remember that confidence at least as frequently arises from a superabundance of self-conceit as from a conviction of the possession of the knowledge necessary to ensure a pass. Every one who has had any experience of examinations has seen how frequently the candidates who appear most elated at the commencement are most chap-fallen at the announcement of the result. Above all, it is necessary to remember that he who conscientiously does his best can do no more, whatever may be the result, and that to fail honourably is a misfortune rather than a fault.

When the papers are given out it is well first to carefully read the instructions which are usually given at the head, as failure to fully comply with the regulations often results in rejection of competent candidates. The questions should then be carefully read through, and the candidate should divide the time allotted to the examination into as many parts as there are questions to be answered. If, for instance, three hours be the time allotted, and the number of questions to be answered be six, this will give half an hour to each one. A neglect of this precaution often results in answers of very unequal merit and completeness, and diminishes the total value of the paper. In most instances the questions may be answered in any order convenient to the candidate; and where this is the case it is generally best to answer first those questions about which the information possessed is most complete, as this gives time for more thought and care to be bestowed upon the more difficult portions of the paper.

In answering a question, it is of the utmost importance to read it carefully, so as to thoroughly grasp its meaning, misapprehension of which necessarily leads to failure. A point of equal importance is to confine the answer strictly to the subject of the question. Let the answer contain all that is asked for, and no more. Much annoyance is experienced by examiners from the discursive answers which some candidates give. It is well to remember that the time of examiners is usually very valuable; and if candidates will persist in unnecessarily occupying it, they can hardly be surprised if they are made to pay a penalty in the shape of loss of marks.

Another point often overlooked by candidates is the futility of attempting to substitute knowledge of one subject for ignorance of another. Instances constantly occur where a student, being ignorant upon the point mentioned in a question, proceeds to display to the examiner his knowledge upon some other matter which he is not asked about, evidently with the fond hope of gaining credit for it. Never was a more complete delusion; the examiner requires at the hands of the candidate information upon a certain subject, and the absence of that information will be visited with certain failure, in spite of the fact that the candidate is master of all other knowledge which it is possible for him to possess.