manners and conduct during the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. They were so deeply rooted, that they continued to operate after the vigor and reputation of the institution itself began to decline."

23. But the actual morals of chivalry were by no means pure its principles, like those of other institutions, were much superior to the practice of its professors and it fell far short of establishing and preserving that purity in the intercourse of the sexes, which it inculcated. The poetry of the Troubadours, and the tales and romances which describe the manners of chivalry, all afford evidence of dissolute morals.

24. The knights professed to redress wrongs, to relieve the oppressed, and to protect the defenceless; but in performing these very acts, they were not unfrequently guilty of the grossest injustice and violence. Chivalry nourished a pernicious thirst for military renown, and cherished a love of war, founded more on feelings of personal resentment, than on those of public spirit. It, indeed, taught mankind to carry the civilities of peace into the operations of war, and to mingle politeness with the use of the sword; but it also gave birth to a punctilious refinement, and sowed the seeds of that fantastic honor, the bitterness of whose fruits is still felt in the modern practice of duelling.

25. The origin of the duel is traced to the Gothic nations. Under the feudal system, and during the age of chivalry, the duel was warmly patronized. It so far prevailed among the Germans, Danes, and Franks, that none were exempted from it but women, sick people, cripples, and such as were under 21 years of age, or above 60. Even ecclesiastics, priests, and monks, were obliged to find a champion to fight in their stead.

26. Laws and regulations were defined for it, in most of the kingdoms of Europe; forms of prayer were likewise prescribed; and the combatants prepared themselves by taking the sacrament. It was then resorted to as a method of discovering truth and preventing perjury, with the belief of the interference of Providence for the punishment of the guilty, and the protection of the innocent. It is now practised as a mode of private revenge; and its use is no longer supported by any plea derived from reason, religion, or superstition.

MODERN HISTORY.

1. DIFFERENT periods, as has already been mentioned, have been adopted by different historians for the commencement of Modern History, as the Christian era, the downfall of the Western Empire of the Romans, the establishment of the New Empire of the West under Charlemagne, and (when considered as distinct from the history of the Middle Ages) the downfall of the Eastern Empire.

2. But in treating of the history of the several European states, the most convenient method is to begin with the commencement of each respectively, without being confined to any one common period. No one of the present sovereignties of Europe, with the exception of France, traces its origin, by any authentic data, further back than the commencement of the 9th century.

3. The period that succeeded the downfall of the Eastern Empire, is one of the most important and interesting in the history of man. On casting an eye back to this period, we see a flood of light suddenly bursting upon the world; mankind waking, as from profound sleep, to a life of activity and bold adventure; ignorance, barbarism, superstition, and feudal slavery, retreating before advancing civilization, knowledge, religion, and freedom.

4. Some of the principal causes which produced the great and beneficial changes in the state of society which then took place, were the invention of the mariner's compass, of gunpowder, and of the art of printing; the discovery of America, and of a maritime passage to India round the Cape of Good Hope; the dispersion of the literary men of Constantinople to the western parts of Europe, and the Reformation in religion.

5. In the history of European commerce, the association of the Hanse Towns holds a conspicuous place. This asso

ciation, which commenced in the 13th century, eventually embraced most of the great commercial towns in Europe, and was in its most flourishing state in the 14th and 15th centuries.

6. From the time of the crusades to the 15th century, the Italians, more especially the cities of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, had the chief management of European commerce. In the maritime discoveries, and the commercial enterprise of the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain took the lead; and on the discovery of a passage to India round the Cape of Good Hope, the commerce of Europe was turned into new channels, and the Italian cities declined.

7. Spain and Portugal have long since lost their former comparative rank in commerce, wealth, and power. They were succeeded in maritime enterprise and activity by the Netherlands, Holland, and England, which became, in turn, the most commercial states in Europe.

8. The most powerful monarchies in Europe, at the present time, are England, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia; the last three of which are comparatively very modern. The history of England is to Americans more important than tha of any other European country; and next to that in impor tance, is the history of France.

FRANCE.

SECTION I.

Merovingian Kings: Carlovingian Kings: Charlemagne, &c. From A. D. 420 to 987.

1. The history of France and that of England are intimately connected, as they have, for many centuries, been rival states, and, during a great part of the time, engaged in war with each other. The kings of England, for a long time, assumed also the title of king of France, as they held possessions in that country, more or less extensive, from the time of William the Conqueror to that of queen Mary.

2. The ancestors of the modern French were the Gauls or Celts, an enterprising and warlike people; and it has been frequently remarked, that there is a striking similitude between the descendants and their progenitors. Ancient Gau. comprehended, in addition to modern France, the Netherlands, and the western part of Germany. It was conquered and annexed to the Roman empire by Julius Cesar, 51 years before the Christian era. It received its modern name from the Franks, who were originally a German tribe, inhabiting the districts on the Lower Rhine and the Weser, and who assumed the appellation of Franks, or Freemen, from their union to resist the dominion of the Romans.

3. The Franks made an irruption into Gaul about the year 420, under their leader Pharamond, who is said to have been succeeded by Clodion, Merova'us, Childeric, and Clovis. The first race of the French kings is styled Merovingian, from Merovæus; but the authentic history of the monarchy commences in 481, with his grandson Clovis, who is regarded as its real founder, and who achieved the conquest of France, by several victories over the Romans, the Alemanni, and the Visigoths, and by marrying Clotilda, a Christian princess, and daughter of the king of Burgundy. In consequence of this marriage, Clovis and his subjects embraced Christianity. He made Paris the seat of his government, and published the Salic laws, excluding females from the throne.

4. The Merovingian kings, who were generally weak sovereigns, continued to possess the throne till 751. In 690, Pepin d'Heristel, mayor of the palace, the first officer under

the crown, acquired the chief control, which he retained for many years, and left it to his son Charles Martel, who gained a great victory over the Saracens, between Tours and Poictiers, and who was succeeded in office by his son Pepin le Bref, or the Short, so called from his low stature, being only four and a half feet high.

5. Pepin governed France while the weak Childeric III. was nominally king; and being a man of talents and ambition, he proposed the question to pope Zachary, whether he himself or Childeric was the best entitled to the crown. Zachary, from interested motives, decided in favor of Pepin, who was accordingly crowned at Soissons, by St. Boniface, bishop of Mentz, and became the founder of the second or Carlovingian race of French kings. Pepin recompensed the services done him by the pope, by turning his arms, during the pontificate of Stephen II., who succeeded Zachary, against the Lombards in Italy, and by granting the exarchate of Ravenna and other territories to the see of Rome. In this manner the pope was raised to the rank of a temporal prince.

6. Pepin was succeeded by his two sons, Charles and Carloman; but the latter dying not long after the death of his father, Charles possessed the undivided sovereignty. This distinguished monarch is known in history by the name of Charlemagne or Charles the Great. Notwithstanding the diminutive stature of his father, he is said to have been seven feet in height, of a robust constitution, and majestic appear

ance.

7. Charlemagne was far the greatest monarch of his age, and distinguished both as a conqueror and a statesman. He was engaged in war during most of his reign, had a long and bloody contest with the Saxons, put an end the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy, by defeating Desiderius or Didier, their last sovereign, and made extensive conquests; but he sustained a great defeat by the Spaniards, at Roncesvalles In 800 he was crowned Emperor of the West, by the pope. His emp're comprised France, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, a great part of Italy, and part of Spain. He had no permanent capital, though Aix-la-Chapelle was, for a long time, his favorite residence.

8. Charlemagne was a luminary in a dark age, and an eminent patron of learning. "He stands alone," says Hallam, like a beacon upon a waste, or a rock in the broad ocean." His court was frequented by Alcuin and other learned men; and he endeavored to dispel the profound