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INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS.
PAGE
i
CHAPTER I.
Early notions of Physical Astronomy.-Newton.-His first Researches on the sub-
ject of Gravitation.-Cause of his failure.-Correspondence with Hooke.-
Resumption of his previous Researches.-Law of the Areas.-Motion of a
Body in an Elliptic Orbit, the force tending to the Focus.-Picard.-His Measure-
ment of an Arc of the Meridian.— Complete success of Newton's Investigation
relative to the Action of the Earth upon the Moon.-His establishment of the
Principle of Gravitation in its widest generality.-Consequences he derived from
it.-The Principia.-Account of the circumstances connected with its publication.
-Halley, Hooke, Wren.-Synopsis of the subjects treated of in the Principia.—
Laplace's opinion of its merits
CHAPTER II.
Newton's Intellectual Character considered in connection with his Scientific Re-
searches. His Inductive ascent to the Principle of Gravitation.- Motion of a
Body in an Orbit of Variable Curvature.-Attraction of a Spherical Mass of
Particles.-Developement of the Theory of Gravitation.-General Effects of
Perturbation.--Inequalities of the Moon computed.-Aid afforded by the Infini-
tesimal Calculus.-Figure of the Earth.-Attraction of Spheroids.-Precession of
the Equinoxes.-General accuracy of Newton's Results.-Anecdotes illustrative
of his Natural Disposition.-His Death and Interment
CHAPTER III.
15
. 33
Circumstances which impeded the early progress of the Newtonian Theory.-Its
reception in England.—Reception on the Continent.-Huygens, Leibnitz.—
Researches in Analysis and Mechanics.—Their influence on Physical Astronomy.
-Problem of Three Bodies.-Motion of the Lunar Apogee.-Clairaut.-Lunar
Tables.-Mayer
41
CHAPTER IV.
Perturbations of the Planets.-Inequality of Long Period in the Mean Motions
of Jupiter and Saturn.-Researches of Euler.-Perturbations of the Earth.-
Clairaut. Perturbations of Venus.-Lagrange. His investigation of the Problem
of Three Bodies.-Secular Variations of the Planets.-Laplace.-His Researches
on the Theory of Jupiter and Saturn.-Invariability of the Mean Distances of the
Planets. Oscillations of the Eccentricities and Inclinations.-Stability of the
Planetary System .
47
CHAPTER V.
Irregularities of Jupiter and Saturn.-Researches of Lambert.-Lagrange.-Circum-
stances which determine the Secular Inequalities in the Mean Longitude.—
Laplace's Investigation of the Theory of Jupiter and Saturn.-His Discovery of
the physical cause of the Long Inequality in their Mean Motions.- Acceleration
of the Moon's Mean Motion.-Halley.-Dunthorne.-Failure of Euler and
Lagrange to account for the Phenomenon.—Its explanation by Laplace.— Secular
Inequalities in the Moon's Perigee and Nodes.—Inequalities depending on the
Spheroidal Figure of the Earth.-Parallactic Inequality
CHAPTER VI.
. 57
Theory of the Figure of the Earth.-Newton.-Huygens.-Maclaurin.-Clairaut.
-Attraction of Spheroids.-D'Alembert.-Legendre.-Theory of Laplace.-
Motion of the Earth about its Centre of Gravity.-Nutation.-Bradley.-Investi-
gation of Precession and Nutation, by D'Alembert.-The Tides.-Equilibrium
Theory.-Researches of Laplace.—Stability of the Ocean.-Libration of the
Moon.-Galileo.- Hevelius.-Newton.-Cassini.-Newton's Explanation of the
Moon's Physical Libration.-Researches of Lagrange.-Combination of the Prin-
ciple of Virtual Velocities with D'Alembert's Principle.—Laplace investigates the
Effect of the Secular Inequalities of the Mean Motion upon the Libration in
Longitude.-His Theory of Saturn's Rings
CHAPTER VII.
66
Jupiter's Satelites.-Galileo.-Simon Marius.-Hodierna.-Borelli.—Cassini.— His
first Tables.—He is invited to France. He publishes his second Tables.-His
Rejection of the Equation of Light.-Researches of Maraldi I.-He discovers
that the Inclination of the second Satellite is variable.—Bradley's Discoveries. —
Maraldi II.-His Discoveries relative to the third and fourth Satellites.-He adopts
the Equation of Light.-Wargentin.-He discovers the Inequalities in Longitude
of the first and second Satellites.-He remarks that the third Satellite has two
Equations of the Centre.-Motion of the Nodes of the fourth Satellite.- Inclina-
tion of the third Satellite.-Libratory Motion of the Nodes.-Inclination of the
fourth Satellite . . 76
CHAPTER VIII.
Physical Theory of the Satellites.-Newton.-Euler.-Walmsley.-Bailly computes
the Perturbations of the Satellites.-Researches of Lagrange.—He obtains for
each Satellite four Equations of the Centre and four Equations of Latitude.--
His mode of representing the Positions of the Orbits.-Inutility of his Theory in
the Construction of Tables.-Laplace.-His Explanation of the constant Rela-
tions between the Epochs and Mean Motions of the three interior Satellites.- He
completes the Physical Theory of the Satellites.-Delambre.-He calculates
Tables on the Basis of Laplace's Theory-- He determines the Maximum Value of
Aberration by means of the Eclipses of the first Satellite.-Agreement of his
Result with Bradley's.-Conclusions derivable from it
87
CHAPTER IX.
Secular Variations of the Planets.-Elements of the Terrestrial Orbit. - Variations of
the Eccentricity.-Motion of the Aphelion.-Obliquity of the Ecliptic.-Its secu-
lar Variation computed by Theory.-Euler.-Lagrange.-Laplace.-Influence of
the displacement of the Ecliptic on the length of the tropical Year.-Indirect Action
of the Planets on the terrestrial Spheroid.—Its effect in restricting the Variations of
the Obliquity of the Ecliptic and the length of the tropical Year.-Invariable Plane
of the Planetary System.-Theory of Comets.-Hevelius.-Borelli.-Dörfel.—
Subjection of the Motions of Comets to the Theory of Gravitation by Newton.-
Halley. — Clairaut.-Researches of Lagrange on Cometary Perturbation.- Lexel's
Comet.—Its perturbations investigated by Laplace.—Publication of the Mécanique
Céleste.-General Reflections on the Progress of Physical Astronomy
CHAPTER X.
Variation of the Mean Distances of the Planets. Researches of Poisson.-The
Theory of Planetary Perturbation resumed by Lagrange and Laplace.-Uni-
formity of the results arrived at by these Geometers.-The General Theory of
the Variation of Arbitrary Constants established by Lagrange.-Researches of
Poisson on this subject.-Death of Lagrange.-Researches of Modern Geometers
on the Theory of Perturbation.-Method of Hansen. - Developement of the
Perturbing Function.-Burchardt.—Binet.-New Methods devised for obtaining
the coefficients of the Perturbing Function.-Secular Inequalities of the Planets.
- Researches of Le Verrier.-Theory of the Moon. - Irregularities of the Epoch.
-Equation of Long Period.-Researches of Damoiseau, Plana, and Carlini.—
Lunar Tables calculated by means of the Theory of Gravitation.-Researches of
Lubbock and Poisson.-Reduction of the Greenwich Observations.-Discovery
of the True Cause of the Irregularities of the Moon's Epoch, by Hansen.-Re-
searches for the purposes of determining the Value of the Moon's Mass
CHAPTER XI.
Theory of the Perturbations of the larger Planets.-Theory of Mercury.-Re-
searches of Le Verrier.-Theory of Venus.-Determination of its Mass.-Theory
of the Earth.-Solar Tables.-Delambre.-Long Inequality depending on the
Action of Venus discovered by Airy.-Theory of Mars.—Evaluation of its
Mass.-Theory of Jupiter.-Calculation of the Terms of the Long Inequality
involving the Fifth Powers of the Eccentricities.-Researches of Plana.-Cor-
rection of the value of Jupiter's Mass.-Theory of Saturn.- Researches relative to
the determination of its Mass.-Theory of Uranus.-Its anomalous Irregularities.
-Discovery of an Exterior Planet by means of them.-Theory of the Smaller
Planets.― Hansen.— Lubbock.—Theory of Comets.—Researches on the Motion of
Encke's Comet.-Hypothesis of a Resisting Medium.-Perturbations of Halley's
Comet calculated.— Satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus.—Determination of
the Mass of Saturn's Ring, by Bessel.-Libration of the Moon.--Nicollet.-Theory
of the Figure of the Earth.-Researches of Ivory on the Attraction of Elliptic Sphe-
roids.-Experiments with the Pendulum.-Mean Density of the Earth.-Motion
of the Earth about its Centre of Gravity.-Poisson.-Researches on the Tides.
-Oscillations of the Atmosphere.-Experiments of Colonel Sabine .
CHAPTER XII.
97
109
123
Introductory Remarks.-Ancient Observations of Uranus.-Calculation of Tables
of the Planet by Delambre.- Tables of Bouvard.—Irregularities of the Planet.—
b
Speculations respecting their Origin.-Errors of Radius Vector.-Researches of
Geometers.-Bessel.-Adams.-Inverse Problem of Perturbation.-Account of
Adams' Researches relative to the existence of a Planet exterior to Uranus.-Re-
sults obtained by him.-Researches of the French Astronomers on the Theory of
Uranus. Eugene Bouvard.-Le Verrier.-Account of his Researches.-Near
Agreement of his Results with those of Adams.-Steps taken by Airy and Challis
for the purpose of discovering the Planet.-New Results obtained by Adams.—
Explanation of Errors of Radius Vector.-Account of the second part of Le Ver-
rier's Researches on the Trans-Uranian Planet.-Address of Sir John Herschel
at Southampton.-The Planet discovered at Berlin by Galle.-Admiration
excited by the Discovery.-Account of Challis' Labours.-Public Announce-
ment of Adams' Researches.-Impression produced by it.-Historical Statement
of the Astronomer Royal.-Publication of the Researches of Le Verrier and
Adams. Remarks suggested by the Discovery of the Planet
CHAPTER XIII.
The Elements of the Planet Neptune deduced from Observation.-They are found
to be discordant with the Results of Theory.-The cause of Discordance as-
signed. The Planet observed by Lalande.-Theory of its Perturbations.-Re-
searches on the value of its Mass.-Uncertainty respecting this Element.-Re-
searches of M. Hansen on the Lunar Theory.-Conclusion of the History of
Physical Astronomy
CHAPTER XIV.
Researches on the Solar Parallax.-Modern Determinations of this Element.-
Discovery of the Solar Spots.-Consequences deduced from this Discovery.-
Period of the Sun's Rotation.-Theories of the Solar Spots.-Wilson.--Herschel.
-Researches on the Lunar Parallax.-Ellipticity of Mercury.-Researches on
the Rotation of Venus.-Discovery of the Ultra-Zodiacal Planets.--Microme-
trical measures of Jupiter's Satellites.-Micrometrical measures of Saturn, and of
his Ring. Discovery of the eighth Satellite of Saturn.-Researches on the
Satellites of Uranus.-Lassell's Discovery of the Satellite of Neptune.—Re-
searches on Comets.- Halley's Comet.-Comet of 1843
CHAPTER XV.
164
201
. 211
General Aspect of Comets.-Translucency of Cometic Matter.-Structure and Di-
mensions of the Envelope.-Description of the Tail.-Its Direction and Curva-
ture. Peculiarities of Structure.-Dimensions.-Phenomena observed during
the Passage of Comets through their Perihelia.-Comet of Halley.-Comet of
1799. Variation of the Volume of Comets.-Hevelius.-Newton.-Struve.-
Herschel. Dissolution of Comets.-Historical Statement of Ephorus.-Comet
of Biela.- Developement of the Tail.-Comet of 1680.-Comet of 1769.-
Anomalous Appearances in the Tail.-Instances of Remarkable Comets.-Hypo-
theses respecting their Physical Constitution.-Theories of the Variation of a
Comet's Volume.-Newton.-Valz.-Herschel.-Theories of the Tails of Comets.
-Kepler.-Newton.-Electrical Theory.-Light of Comets.-Appearance of
Phases. — Cassini. — Cacciatore. — Polarization of the Light of Comets.—Re-
searches of Arago.-Question respecting the Solidity of Comets.-Newton.-La-
place. Smallness of a Comet's Mass.-Ultimate condition of Cometary Bodies.
-Opinions of Newton, Laplace, and Herschel on this point
. 292
CHAPTER XVI.
Importance of Facts in the Cultivation of Physics.—Astronomy a Science of Ob-
servation.-Inequalities which affect the apparent Positions of the Celestial Bodies.
-Precession.-Its Discovery by Hipparchus.— Researches of Modern Astro-
nomers on its Value.-Bessel.-Peters.-Otto Struve.-Refraction.-Its Effect
upon the Place of a Celestial Body first remarked by Ptolemy.-Opinion of
Tycho Brahé respecting its Nature.-The first Theory of Refraction due to
Cassini.- His Table of Refractions.-Newton.-His Correspondence with Flam-
steed on the subject of Refraction.—Formula of Bradley.-French Tables of
Refraction.-Researches of Bessel.-Aberration.—Its Discovery by Bradley.--
Modern Determinations of its Value.-Nutation discovered by Bradley.-Its most
approved Value.-Researches on Parallax.-Methods for facilitating the Reduction
of Observations.-Method of Bessel.-Physical Causes which more especially
affect the Aspect of the Celestial Bodies.-Diffraction.-Irradiation
CHAPTER XVII.
. 316
Eclipses of the Sun and Moon.-Historical Statement of total Eclipses of the Sun.
-Annular Eclipses observed in modern Times.-Change of Colour which the
Sky undergoes during an Eclipse.-Its Explanation by M. Arago.-Corona of
Light observed around the Moon.-Allusions made to it by Ancient Authors.—
Explanations of its physical Cause by different Individuals.—Protuberances on
the Moon's Limb.-Their most probable Nature.-Observations on the Surface
of the Moon during Eclipses.-Undulations observed on the Occasion of the
Eclipse of 1842.—Similar Phenomena observed during the Eclipse of 1733.—
Explanation of their Origin. - Optical Phenomena observed during Solar
Eclipses.-Threads, Beads, &c.-Explanation of their Origin.-Lunar Eclipses.
-Transits of Venus.-Physical Appearances observed during their Occurrence.-
Transits of Mercury.-Spot observed on the Planet's Disk.-Its Explanation by
Professor Powell.-Occultations of the Planets and Stars
CHAPTER XVIII.
Early Methods of observing the Celestial Bodies.-Instruments of the Greek
Astronomers.—Accurate Principles of Observation first employed by the Astro-
nomers of the Alexandrian School.-Improvements effected by Hipparchus.—
Ptolemy substitutes the Quadrant for the Complete Circle.-Arabian Astronomers.
-The Method by which they indicated the Time of an Observation.-Revival of
Practical Astronomy in Europe.-Labours of Waltherus.-Tycho Brahé.—Land-
grave of Hesse-Hevelius.- Close of the Tychonic School of Observation.—
Observatory of Copenhagen established.-The Pendulum applied to Clocks by
Huyghens.-The Royal Society of London, and the Academy of Sciences of
Paris, established.-Invention of the Micrometer.-Application of the Telescope
to divided Instruments.- Observatories of Paris and Greenwich established.—
Labours of Roemer.-Transit Instrument invented. The use of Circular Instru-
ments for taking Altitudes introduced.—Labours of Flamsteed and Halley.—
Royal Observatory of Paris.-Commencement of the Era of accurate Observa-
tion. - Bradley. - Lacaille.-Mayer.-Maskelyne. — Pond.-Airy.-Reduction
of Planetary and Lunar Observations.-Present state of Practical Astronomy
CHAPTER XIX.
-
Catalogues of the Fixed Stars.-Their importance as forming the Groundwork of
Astronomical Science.-Earlier Catalogues.-Ptolemy.-Ulugh Beigh.-Tycho
358
434