History of Physical Astronomy: From the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the ... - Robert Grant - Google Books

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INTRODUCTION

CONTENTS.

PAGE

i

Early notions of Physical Astronomy.-Newton.-His first Researches on the sub-

ject of Gravitation.-Cause of his failure.-Correspondence with Hooke.-

Resumption of his previous Researches.-Law of the Areas.-Motion of a

Body in an Elliptic Orbit, the force tending to the Focus.-Picard.-His Measure-

ment of an Arc of the Meridian.— Complete success of Newton's Investigation

relative to the Action of the Earth upon the Moon.-His establishment of the

Principle of Gravitation in its widest generality.-Consequences he derived from

it.-The Principia.-Account of the circumstances connected with its publication.

-Halley, Hooke, Wren.-Synopsis of the subjects treated of in the Principia.—

Laplace's opinion of its merits

Newton's Intellectual Character considered in connection with his Scientific Re-

searches. His Inductive ascent to the Principle of Gravitation.- Motion of a

Body in an Orbit of Variable Curvature.-Attraction of a Spherical Mass of

Particles.-Developement of the Theory of Gravitation.-General Effects of

Perturbation.--Inequalities of the Moon computed.-Aid afforded by the Infini-

tesimal Calculus.-Figure of the Earth.-Attraction of Spheroids.-Precession of

the Equinoxes.-General accuracy of Newton's Results.-Anecdotes illustrative

of his Natural Disposition.-His Death and Interment

Circumstances which impeded the early progress of the Newtonian Theory.-Its

reception in England.—Reception on the Continent.-Huygens, Leibnitz.—

Researches in Analysis and Mechanics.—Their influence on Physical Astronomy.

-Problem of Three Bodies.-Motion of the Lunar Apogee.-Clairaut.-Lunar

Perturbations of the Planets.-Inequality of Long Period in the Mean Motions

of Jupiter and Saturn.-Researches of Euler.-Perturbations of the Earth.-

Clairaut. Perturbations of Venus.-Lagrange. His investigation of the Problem

of Three Bodies.-Secular Variations of the Planets.-Laplace.-His Researches

on the Theory of Jupiter and Saturn.-Invariability of the Mean Distances of the

Planets. Oscillations of the Eccentricities and Inclinations.-Stability of the

Planetary System .

Irregularities of Jupiter and Saturn.-Researches of Lambert.-Lagrange.-Circum-

stances which determine the Secular Inequalities in the Mean Longitude.—

Laplace's Investigation of the Theory of Jupiter and Saturn.-His Discovery of

the physical cause of the Long Inequality in their Mean Motions.- Acceleration

of the Moon's Mean Motion.-Halley.-Dunthorne.-Failure of Euler and

Lagrange to account for the Phenomenon.—Its explanation by Laplace.— Secular

Inequalities in the Moon's Perigee and Nodes.—Inequalities depending on the

Spheroidal Figure of the Earth.-Parallactic Inequality

Theory of the Figure of the Earth.-Newton.-Huygens.-Maclaurin.-Clairaut.

-Attraction of Spheroids.-D'Alembert.-Legendre.-Theory of Laplace.-

Motion of the Earth about its Centre of Gravity.-Nutation.-Bradley.-Investi-

gation of Precession and Nutation, by D'Alembert.-The Tides.-Equilibrium

Theory.-Researches of Laplace.—Stability of the Ocean.-Libration of the

Moon.-Galileo.- Hevelius.-Newton.-Cassini.-Newton's Explanation of the

Moon's Physical Libration.-Researches of Lagrange.-Combination of the Prin-

ciple of Virtual Velocities with D'Alembert's Principle.—Laplace investigates the

Effect of the Secular Inequalities of the Mean Motion upon the Libration in

Longitude.-His Theory of Saturn's Rings

Jupiter's Satelites.-Galileo.-Simon Marius.-Hodierna.-Borelli.—Cassini.— His

first Tables.—He is invited to France. He publishes his second Tables.-His

Rejection of the Equation of Light.-Researches of Maraldi I.-He discovers

that the Inclination of the second Satellite is variable.—Bradley's Discoveries. —

Maraldi II.-His Discoveries relative to the third and fourth Satellites.-He adopts

the Equation of Light.-Wargentin.-He discovers the Inequalities in Longitude

of the first and second Satellites.-He remarks that the third Satellite has two

Equations of the Centre.-Motion of the Nodes of the fourth Satellite.- Inclina-

tion of the third Satellite.-Libratory Motion of the Nodes.-Inclination of the

fourth Satellite
. . 76

Physical Theory of the Satellites.-Newton.-Euler.-Walmsley.-Bailly computes

the Perturbations of the Satellites.-Researches of Lagrange.—He obtains for

each Satellite four Equations of the Centre and four Equations of Latitude.--

His mode of representing the Positions of the Orbits.-Inutility of his Theory in

the Construction of Tables.-Laplace.-His Explanation of the constant Rela-

tions between the Epochs and Mean Motions of the three interior Satellites.- He

completes the Physical Theory of the Satellites.-Delambre.-He calculates

Tables on the Basis of Laplace's Theory-- He determines the Maximum Value of

Aberration by means of the Eclipses of the first Satellite.-Agreement of his

Result with Bradley's.-Conclusions derivable from it

Secular Variations of the Planets.-Elements of the Terrestrial Orbit. - Variations of

the Eccentricity.-Motion of the Aphelion.-Obliquity of the Ecliptic.-Its secu-

lar Variation computed by Theory.-Euler.-Lagrange.-Laplace.-Influence of

the displacement of the Ecliptic on the length of the tropical Year.-Indirect Action

of the Planets on the terrestrial Spheroid.—Its effect in restricting the Variations of

the Obliquity of the Ecliptic and the length of the tropical Year.-Invariable Plane

of the Planetary System.-Theory of Comets.-Hevelius.-Borelli.-Dörfel.—

Subjection of the Motions of Comets to the Theory of Gravitation by Newton.-

Halley. — Clairaut.-Researches of Lagrange on Cometary Perturbation.- Lexel's

Comet.—Its perturbations investigated by Laplace.—Publication of the Mécanique

Céleste.-General Reflections on the Progress of Physical Astronomy

Variation of the Mean Distances of the Planets. Researches of Poisson.-The

Theory of Planetary Perturbation resumed by Lagrange and Laplace.-Uni-

formity of the results arrived at by these Geometers.-The General Theory of

the Variation of Arbitrary Constants established by Lagrange.-Researches of

Poisson on this subject.-Death of Lagrange.-Researches of Modern Geometers

on the Theory of Perturbation.-Method of Hansen. - Developement of the

Perturbing Function.-Burchardt.—Binet.-New Methods devised for obtaining

the coefficients of the Perturbing Function.-Secular Inequalities of the Planets.

- Researches of Le Verrier.-Theory of the Moon. - Irregularities of the Epoch.

-Equation of Long Period.-Researches of Damoiseau, Plana, and Carlini.—

Lunar Tables calculated by means of the Theory of Gravitation.-Researches of

Lubbock and Poisson.-Reduction of the Greenwich Observations.-Discovery

of the True Cause of the Irregularities of the Moon's Epoch, by Hansen.-Re-

searches for the purposes of determining the Value of the Moon's Mass

Theory of the Perturbations of the larger Planets.-Theory of Mercury.-Re-

searches of Le Verrier.-Theory of Venus.-Determination of its Mass.-Theory

of the Earth.-Solar Tables.-Delambre.-Long Inequality depending on the

Action of Venus discovered by Airy.-Theory of Mars.—Evaluation of its

Mass.-Theory of Jupiter.-Calculation of the Terms of the Long Inequality

involving the Fifth Powers of the Eccentricities.-Researches of Plana.-Cor-

rection of the value of Jupiter's Mass.-Theory of Saturn.- Researches relative to

the determination of its Mass.-Theory of Uranus.-Its anomalous Irregularities.

-Discovery of an Exterior Planet by means of them.-Theory of the Smaller

Planets.― Hansen.— Lubbock.—Theory of Comets.—Researches on the Motion of

Encke's Comet.-Hypothesis of a Resisting Medium.-Perturbations of Halley's

Comet calculated.— Satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus.—Determination of

the Mass of Saturn's Ring, by Bessel.-Libration of the Moon.--Nicollet.-Theory

of the Figure of the Earth.-Researches of Ivory on the Attraction of Elliptic Sphe-

roids.-Experiments with the Pendulum.-Mean Density of the Earth.-Motion

of the Earth about its Centre of Gravity.-Poisson.-Researches on the Tides.

-Oscillations of the Atmosphere.-Experiments of Colonel Sabine .

Introductory Remarks.-Ancient Observations of Uranus.-Calculation of Tables

of the Planet by Delambre.- Tables of Bouvard.—Irregularities of the Planet.—

b

Speculations respecting their Origin.-Errors of Radius Vector.-Researches of

Geometers.-Bessel.-Adams.-Inverse Problem of Perturbation.-Account of

Adams' Researches relative to the existence of a Planet exterior to Uranus.-Re-

sults obtained by him.-Researches of the French Astronomers on the Theory of

Uranus. Eugene Bouvard.-Le Verrier.-Account of his Researches.-Near

Agreement of his Results with those of Adams.-Steps taken by Airy and Challis

for the purpose of discovering the Planet.-New Results obtained by Adams.—

Explanation of Errors of Radius Vector.-Account of the second part of Le Ver-

rier's Researches on the Trans-Uranian Planet.-Address of Sir John Herschel

at Southampton.-The Planet discovered at Berlin by Galle.-Admiration

excited by the Discovery.-Account of Challis' Labours.-Public Announce-

ment of Adams' Researches.-Impression produced by it.-Historical Statement

of the Astronomer Royal.-Publication of the Researches of Le Verrier and

Adams. Remarks suggested by the Discovery of the Planet

The Elements of the Planet Neptune deduced from Observation.-They are found

to be discordant with the Results of Theory.-The cause of Discordance as-

signed. The Planet observed by Lalande.-Theory of its Perturbations.-Re-

searches on the value of its Mass.-Uncertainty respecting this Element.-Re-

searches of M. Hansen on the Lunar Theory.-Conclusion of the History of

Physical Astronomy

Researches on the Solar Parallax.-Modern Determinations of this Element.-

Discovery of the Solar Spots.-Consequences deduced from this Discovery.-

Period of the Sun's Rotation.-Theories of the Solar Spots.-Wilson.--Herschel.

-Researches on the Lunar Parallax.-Ellipticity of Mercury.-Researches on

the Rotation of Venus.-Discovery of the Ultra-Zodiacal Planets.--Microme-

trical measures of Jupiter's Satellites.-Micrometrical measures of Saturn, and of

his Ring. Discovery of the eighth Satellite of Saturn.-Researches on the

Satellites of Uranus.-Lassell's Discovery of the Satellite of Neptune.—Re-

searches on Comets.- Halley's Comet.-Comet of 1843

General Aspect of Comets.-Translucency of Cometic Matter.-Structure and Di-

mensions of the Envelope.-Description of the Tail.-Its Direction and Curva-

ture. Peculiarities of Structure.-Dimensions.-Phenomena observed during

the Passage of Comets through their Perihelia.-Comet of Halley.-Comet of

1799. Variation of the Volume of Comets.-Hevelius.-Newton.-Struve.-

Herschel. Dissolution of Comets.-Historical Statement of Ephorus.-Comet

of Biela.- Developement of the Tail.-Comet of 1680.-Comet of 1769.-

Anomalous Appearances in the Tail.-Instances of Remarkable Comets.-Hypo-

theses respecting their Physical Constitution.-Theories of the Variation of a

Comet's Volume.-Newton.-Valz.-Herschel.-Theories of the Tails of Comets.

-Kepler.-Newton.-Electrical Theory.-Light of Comets.-Appearance of

Phases. — Cassini. — Cacciatore. — Polarization of the Light of Comets.—Re-

searches of Arago.-Question respecting the Solidity of Comets.-Newton.-La-

place. Smallness of a Comet's Mass.-Ultimate condition of Cometary Bodies.

-Opinions of Newton, Laplace, and Herschel on this point

Importance of Facts in the Cultivation of Physics.—Astronomy a Science of Ob-

servation.-Inequalities which affect the apparent Positions of the Celestial Bodies.

-Precession.-Its Discovery by Hipparchus.— Researches of Modern Astro-

nomers on its Value.-Bessel.-Peters.-Otto Struve.-Refraction.-Its Effect

upon the Place of a Celestial Body first remarked by Ptolemy.-Opinion of

Tycho Brahé respecting its Nature.-The first Theory of Refraction due to

Cassini.- His Table of Refractions.-Newton.-His Correspondence with Flam-

steed on the subject of Refraction.—Formula of Bradley.-French Tables of

Refraction.-Researches of Bessel.-Aberration.—Its Discovery by Bradley.--

Modern Determinations of its Value.-Nutation discovered by Bradley.-Its most

approved Value.-Researches on Parallax.-Methods for facilitating the Reduction

of Observations.-Method of Bessel.-Physical Causes which more especially

affect the Aspect of the Celestial Bodies.-Diffraction.-Irradiation

Eclipses of the Sun and Moon.-Historical Statement of total Eclipses of the Sun.

-Annular Eclipses observed in modern Times.-Change of Colour which the

Sky undergoes during an Eclipse.-Its Explanation by M. Arago.-Corona of

Light observed around the Moon.-Allusions made to it by Ancient Authors.—

Explanations of its physical Cause by different Individuals.—Protuberances on

the Moon's Limb.-Their most probable Nature.-Observations on the Surface

of the Moon during Eclipses.-Undulations observed on the Occasion of the

Eclipse of 1842.—Similar Phenomena observed during the Eclipse of 1733.—

Explanation of their Origin. - Optical Phenomena observed during Solar

Eclipses.-Threads, Beads, &c.-Explanation of their Origin.-Lunar Eclipses.

-Transits of Venus.-Physical Appearances observed during their Occurrence.-

Transits of Mercury.-Spot observed on the Planet's Disk.-Its Explanation by

Professor Powell.-Occultations of the Planets and Stars

Early Methods of observing the Celestial Bodies.-Instruments of the Greek

Astronomers.—Accurate Principles of Observation first employed by the Astro-

nomers of the Alexandrian School.-Improvements effected by Hipparchus.—

Ptolemy substitutes the Quadrant for the Complete Circle.-Arabian Astronomers.

-The Method by which they indicated the Time of an Observation.-Revival of

Practical Astronomy in Europe.-Labours of Waltherus.-Tycho Brahé.—Land-

grave of Hesse-Hevelius.- Close of the Tychonic School of Observation.—

Observatory of Copenhagen established.-The Pendulum applied to Clocks by

Huyghens.-The Royal Society of London, and the Academy of Sciences of

Paris, established.-Invention of the Micrometer.-Application of the Telescope

to divided Instruments.- Observatories of Paris and Greenwich established.—

Labours of Roemer.-Transit Instrument invented. The use of Circular Instru-

ments for taking Altitudes introduced.—Labours of Flamsteed and Halley.—

Royal Observatory of Paris.-Commencement of the Era of accurate Observa-

tion. - Bradley. - Lacaille.-Mayer.-Maskelyne. — Pond.-Airy.-Reduction

of Planetary and Lunar Observations.-Present state of Practical Astronomy

Catalogues of the Fixed Stars.-Their importance as forming the Groundwork of

Astronomical Science.-Earlier Catalogues.-Ptolemy.-Ulugh Beigh.-Tycho

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