consisted properly in the public rites and ceremonies to be observed in the worship of their deities. "The priests (as "Mr. Locke observes) made it not their business to teach "men virtue."* Their office was, according to the account Varro gives of it, to instruct men what gods they were to worship, what sacrifices they were to offer to their several deities, and to direct them in what manner they were to observe the appointed rites. It is true, that Cicero, in his Oratio pro Domo sua ad Pontifices, represents them as having a general inspection over the manners of the citizens: but this they did not properly as priests of religion, but as ministers of the state. For in the Roman government, the same persons acted in both capacities, and the priesthood was so modelled as to answer the civil and political views of the commonwealth. It is a just observation of the Baron Puffendorf, that "what the Romans called religion was chiefly in"stituted for the benefit of the state, that they might be the "better able to rule the minds of the people, according to the "conveniencies and exigences of the public." He adds that "there were no certain heads or articles of religion "among the Romans, whence the people might be instructed "concerning the being and will of God, or how they ought "to regulate their practice and actions, so as to please God.”† Those who were diligent in the observation of the sacred customary rites, and worshipped the gods according to the laws, were looked upon as having fulfilled the duties of religion. But no farther regard was had to their morals, than as the interest of the state was concerned. If at any time the public To the same purpose Lactantius observes, that those who taught the worship of the gods, gave no directions as to what related to the regulation of men's manners, and to the conduct of life. "Nihil ibi disseritur, quod proficiat ad mores excolendos, vitamque formandam.” And that among the Pagans, philosophy (or the doctrine of morals) and the religion of the gods, were entirely distinct, and separated from one another. "Philosophia et religio deorum dis"juncta sunt, longeque discreta." Divin. Instit. lib. iv. cap. 3. See also Augus tin. de Civit. Dei, lib. ii. cap. 4, 6, et 7. + Puffendorf's Introduct. to Hist. of Europe, chap. 1. sect. 10. was exposed to great calamities, and it was thought necessary to appease the gods, and avert their displeasure, repentance and a reformation of manners was never prescribed by the priests, as one of the means appointed by religion for that purpose: but they had recourse on such occasions to some odd and trifling ceremony; such as the dictator's striking a nail into a door, or something of the like nature.* So far was the heathen religion, and the worship of their deities, from giving men a right notion of morality, or engaging them to the practice of it, that in many instances the rites made use of, in the worship of their gods, were of an immoral nature, and instead of promoting the practice of virtue, had a tendency to encourage vice and licentiousness. This sufficiently appears from the instances produced in the former volume, chap. vii. To the instances there mentioned, I now add what a very learned writer has observed, that Aristotle, in his Politics, "having blamed all lewd and obscene images "and pictures, excepts those of the gods, which religion has "sanctified."+ It appears, then, that if a complete rule of morals was to be found among the Pagans, we must not look for it in their religion, but either in the civil laws and constitutions, and customs which obtained the force of laws, or in the doctrines and precepts of the philosophers and moralists. Many have spoke with admiration of the civil laws and constitutions, which were in force among the Pagan nations, as if they were sufficient to direct and regulate their moral conduct. Some of the most eminent of the ancient philosophers seem to resolve the whole duty of a good man into obedience to the laws of his country. Socrates defines the just man to be one that obeys the laws of the republic, and that he becomes unjust by transgressing them. And Xenophon * Hume's Nat. History of Religion, p. 105, Div. Legation of Moses, vol. I. p. 97, edit. 4th. † Ibid. p. 154. Xenoph. Memor. Socr. lib. iv. cap. 4. sect. 13. accordingly observes, that that philosopher was in all things for adhering closely and inviolably to the laws, both publicly and privately, and exhorted all men to do so. .* And many passages might be produced to show, that both he and Plato, and the philosophers in general, urged it as the duty of the citizens to make the laws of their country the rule of their practice, both in religious and civil matters. Some modern authors have talked in the same strain, and have laid the chief stress on human laws and government, as giving the best directions, and furnishing the most effectual means, for the securing and improving the moral state. It cannot be denied, that there were many excellent laws and constitutions among the Heathen nations, and which were of great use in regulating the manners of men, and preserving good order in society but it is no hard matter to prove, that the civil laws of any community are very imperfect measures of moral duty. A man may obey those laws, and yet be far from being truly virtuous: he may not be obnoxious to the penalties of those laws, and yet be a vicious and bad man. Nor indeed is it the proper design of those laws to render men really and inwardly virtuous, but so to govern their outward behaviour, as to maintain public order. The highest end they propose is the temporal welfare and prosperity of the state. The heart, the proper seat of virtue and vice, is not within the cognizance of civil laws and human governments. Nor can the sanctions of those laws, or any rewards and punishments which the ablest human legislators can contrive, be ever applied to enforce the whole of moral duty. They cannot reach to the inward temper, or the secret affections and dispositions of the soul, and intentions of the will, on which yet the morality of • Xenoph. Memor. Socr. lib. i. sect. 1, 2. et seq. + Lord Bolingbroke's Works, vol. V. p. 480, 481. edit. 4to. This also is the scheme of the author of the book De l'Esprit, who makes the law of the state to be the only rule and measure of virtue and duty, and what he calls a good legislation to be the only means of promoting it. human actions, or their being good and evil in the sight of God, does principally depend. Seneca says very well, that "it is a narrow notion of innocence to measure a man's good"ness only by the law. Of how much larger extent is the "rule of duty or of good offices, than that of legal right? "How many things are there which piety, humanity, liberaliσε ty, justice, fidelity, require, which yet are not within the 66 compass of the public statutes ?-Quam angusta innocentia "est ad legem bonum esse? Quanto latius officiorum patet 66 quam juris regula? Quam multa pietas, humanitas, libe❝ralitas, justitia, fides exigunt, quæ omnia extra publicas "tabulas sunt ?"* But let us more particularly enquire into the most celebrated civil laws and institutions among those that have been accounted the most civilized and best policed nations. The Egyptians were anciently much admired for the wisdom of their laws, which were looked upon to be well fitted for the maintenance of public order: but they were far from furnishing adequate rules of virtue, and were, in some respects, greatly deficient. There is a passage of Porphyry, which has been thought to give an advantageous idea of the Egyptian morality. He informs us, that when they embalmed the body of any of the nobles, they were wont to take out the belly, and put it into a chest; and then holding up the chest towards the sun, one of the embalmers made an oration or speech in the name of the defunct person ; which contained the dead man's apology for himself, and the righteousness on the account of which he prayed to be admitted to the * Sen. de Ira. lib. ii. cap. 27. The learned bishop of Gloucester has set this matter in a very clear light, in his Divine Legation of Moses, vol. I. book i. sect. 2. p. 13. et seq. where he shows, that the laws of civil society, alone considered, are insufficient to prevent or cure moral disorders; that they can have no farther efficacy than to restrain men from open transgressions; nor can their influence be extended thus far in all cases; especially where the irregularity is owing to the violence of the sensual passions: they also overlook what are called the duties of imperfect obligation, such as gratitude, hospitality, charity, &c. though these duties are of considerable importance in the moral character. fellowship of the eternal gods. "O Lord the Sun, and all ye "gods that give life to men, receive me, and admit me to the "fellowship of the eternal gods: for whilst I lived in the "world, I religiously worshipped the gods which my parents "showed me: those that generated my body I always honour"ed: I neither killed any man, nor fraudulently took away "any thing that was committed to my trust; nor have I been "guilty of any other very heinous or inexpiable wickedness: "if in my life-time I offended in eating or drinking any of "the things which it was not lawful for me to cat or drink; "the offence was not committed by myself, but by these;" pointing to the chest, which contained his belly and entrails, and which was then thrown into the river: after which, the rest of the body was embalmed as pure. Porphyry cites for this Euphantus, who translated this prayer or oration out of the Egyptian tongue.* This may seem to have been well contrived to point out the most eminent parts of a virtuous life and character, which tended to recommend a man to the divine favour. But it is to be observed, that the sun is here addressed as the Supreme Lord, together with other gods, who are represented as the authors and givers of life, and that the first and principal thing here mentioned as a proof of the person's piety is, his having worshipped the gods which his parents had shown him. And what kind of deities they were which the Egyptians worshipped, is generally known. So that they were wrong with respect to the fundamental principle of morality, the knowledge and worship of one true God. A late learned and ingenious author has shown, that though the Egyptians had some very good constitutions, there reigned in their government a multitude of abuses and essential defects, authorized by their laws, and the fundamental principles of their state. There were great indecencies and impurities in many of their public established rites and ceremonies of religion. It was permitted among them for brothers and * Porph. de Abstin. lib. iv. sect. 10. |