Continental Slope. The regulations governing mineral development on the Outer Continental Shelf may be found in the Code of Federal Regulations, Titles 30 and 43.

The following are important aspects of offshore mineral activities that, in one degree or other, may have an impact on the living resources of the oceans: 1. Exploration for offshore oil and gas

2. Geophysical procedures and methods, explosive and nonexplosive

3. Planning of lease offerings

4. Blowout protection

5. Plugging and abandonment of wells

6. Subsurface safety devices

7. Control of pollution

8. Drilling and producing methods

9. Underwater completions

10. Burial of pipelines

11. Cooperative planning

These are discussed below because it is important that the citizens of New England be informed on Federal oil and gas operations and be encouraged to participate fully in discussions to provide for equitable multiple use of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands and the waters above these lands.

EXPLORATION FOR OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS

Traces or "showings" of petroleum are of no more interest to oil companies and gas companies than a few scattered fish are to fishermen. Commercially valuable accumulations of oil and gas are rare and hard to find. Oil fields and gas fields occur only under certain favorable circumstances: where there are porous and permeable beds of rock into which hydrocarbons can move, where some sort of geologic structure creates a trap for holding these hydrocarbons, and, obviously, a source of hydrocarbons.

Past experience indicates that, should drilling for oil and gas ever be conducted in an area with little previous knowledge, such as Georges Bank, the odds from discovering an oil or gas field are about 1 in 10. Based on data from seismic and other programs of oceanographic institutions, if oil or gas is discovered, it is unlikely that as much as 5 percent of the area would be underlain by commercial deposits. Georges Bank, to a depth of 100 meters (328 feet) of water, is about 150 nautical miles long and an average of about 65 nautical miles wide, or an area of some 10,000 square miles; even if it turns out to be a rich producing region, it is likely to contain producible fields in less than 500 square miles.

The geology of the Atlantic Continental Shelf, especially off New England, was little known until recently. It is only in the last several years that there have been indications that Georges Bank might have petroleum source rocks, might have suitable reservoir rocks, and might have geologic structures effective in trapping oil or gas. Industrial scientists and engineers take a variety of steps to resolve these uncertainties. On the East Coast these initial investigations have been in progress under permit since 1960.

During the summer of 1967, 18 core holes were drilled for geologic information on the Atlantic Continental Slope beyond the Shelf; these holes were wide spaced from Florida to the 40th parallel to sample the rocks themselves and determine the succession of layers. The nearest drilling to Georges Bank was at 39° 52' N. Lat. and 69° 36′ W. Long. in water depths between 3,500 and 4,600 feet. The drilling was not for direct testing or production of oil and gas because there have been no lease sales of OCS lands in the Atlantic; the maximum depth allowed under the permit for these geologic core holes was 1,000 feet below the ocean bottom.

GEOPHYSICAL PROCEDURES AND METHODS

Geophysical exploitations are conducted by several methods. There are devices for measuring natural properties of the earth that help the geologist deduce information about rock structure, composition, depth, etc. Many of these devices are passive in that they simply detect existing forces or properties, such as gravity, geomagnetic fields, or radiometric character. New devices are constantly being sought and, in the future, the variety of instruments will undoubtedly increase; instruments sensing infrared properties, radar response, or other characteristics may be adapted to oil and gas exploration. None of these affect marine life and will not be discussed.

Geophysical exploration by seismic methods are of considerably more interest to the fishing industry than the methods mentioned above. Seismic methods involve the use of both explosive and nonexplosive devices. In either case, the object is to send a signal or shock wave through the rocks which will be partly reflected back from each layer of rock to sensitive recording devices called geophones. From the record of these reflections it is possible to interpret the configuration of the underlying rock structures. This furnishes important clues in determining where accumulations of oil or gas could occur.

Explosive devices

For many years the most widely used methods involved the detonation of charges of dynamite, black powder, or nitro-carbo-nitrate to generate the shock waves. Charges in the past have ranged in size from a few ounces to several hundred pounds, but shots in excess of 50 pounds are seldom used in the Atlantic. Nitro-carbo-nitrate is the explosive that is most used at present.

From the time exploration for oil and gas began in offshore areas of the United States many years ago, there has been very close observation of the effect on aquatic resources. Dead fish have been found in the vicinity of some seismic operations. Experiments have shown that fish are indeed killed in the near vicinity of explosions of the magnitude used in geophysical exploration. For example, experiments with 25-pound charges of nitro-carbo-nitrate showed the lethal range for anchovies and sardines, both of which have air bladders, is about 500 feet. Smaller size charges have proportionally lesser lethal ranges. Variables in the intensity of a seismic explosion can be expected depending on differing oceanographic conditions. Different types of fish also are affected differently. Fish with air bladders, such as cod and haddock, are more susceptible to damage than fish without air bladders, such as flounder and sole. Shellfish of all types are not affected unless extremely close to the blast. It is not certain whether or not planktonic organisms (drifting plants and animals of microscopic size) are damaged; but this is not a critical matter because of the widespread distribution of these organisms in the sea, as a result of which adverse effects over a limited area can have little effect on the total population. In some cases it has been shown that adult fish have not been harmed by explosions, but there is less experimental evidence of effects on their drifting eggs and larvae; again, because of the wide distribution of these stages, this is not a critical problem.

The Secretary of the Interior has entered into formal cooperative agreements with Georgia, California, and all States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, except Mississippi, governing geophysical operations. In addition, the Oil and Gas Supervisors of the Geological Survey have entered into informal arrangements with Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. Essentially these provide that geophysical activities on the Federal Outer Continental Shelf, although under Federal control, will be conducted in accordance with the same State regulations that control geophysical explorations within the State's submerged lands, and State observers may be used to ensure protection of aquatic life.

The aforementioned States have adopted comprehensive regulatory programs governing exploration operations in areas of State jurisdiction and have set size limits on explosive charges. Most require that observers, employing devices to observe the presence of fish schools, and with authority to stop or move operations be on board during seismic shooting. Off Alaska and in the Gulf of Mexico, steps have been taken to schedule exploration operations to coincide with seasons or time periods when valuable concentrations of fish will not be in the area of shooting. Scheduling operations seasonally would be of less value in the Georges Bank area, however, because it has a year-around population of several species of commercial fish.

There are no Federal-State cooperative agreements currently in effect on the Atlantic Coast north of Georgia. Exploration permits are issued by the Regional Oil and Gas Supervisor subject to such requirements and restrictions as he deems necessary after consultation with representatives of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries to ensure that aquatic life will be protected. The Bureau is afforded an opportunity (1) to make recommendations on conditions to be included in permits to be issued, and (2) to observe geophysical explorations in areas of aquatic life concentration. When in the course of such observation it appears that undue damage to living resources may result, the Bureau can recommend appropriate corrective action.

Nonexplosive devices

Rapid advances are being made in geophysical techniques and today nonexplosive seismic methods are widely used offshore. Only nonexplosive devices have been used on Georges Bank since 1966 when operations using explosive charges were suspended when it became apparent that they were harmful to marine life in the particular area of operations. Although explosives may need to be used for detail work in limited areas, the new nonexplosive seismic systems, which apparently do not damage marine life, have replaced the explosive methods in large measure. The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries recently conducted tests on 2 nonexplosive devices-a 120,000 Joule sparker and the Vibroseis device. Within limits of the experiments, it was found that neither device produced any noticeable damage to aquatic life. One of these tests dealt solely with adult fish. The experiment with the Vibroseis dealt with planktonic organisms attempting to find evidence of external damage. This test did not indicate that the Vibroseis caused any damage to the planktonic organisms used in the experiment. However, because of the difficulties of experiments at sea with these small, fragile organisms, further studies to verify this are in order. The State of Alaska, after checking similar nonexplosive devices, has concluded that they are not sufficiently damaging even to require that an observer be on board during shooting operations. As new devices are developed, their harmlessness as "nonexplosive systems" must be examined.

PLANNING OF LEASE OFFERINGS

The Department has conducted 16 oil and gas lease sales on the Outer Continental Shelf since passage of the OCS Act in 1953. A total of 1,220 oil and gas leases covering 5,477,460 acres have been issued. At the present time 911 leases covering 3,953,000 acres are in effect. Of the more than 6,300 wells drilled on the OCS about 3,600 are producing. All of the OCS production to date has been from areas off Louisiana and Texas.

When the Department has received sufficient expressions of interest for a competitive lease sale in a given area, which may take several years, a Call for Nominations of lease tracks is published in the Federal Register identifying the area for future leasing consideration. Companies are given a reasonable period within which to advise the Department of tracts in which they are interested. The Department analyzes all of the nominated lease blocks and confers with other governmental agencies before selecting the parcels to be leased. These events are published in the local area because local interest is always high.

Finally, the Department decides on those parcels to be offered for lease and a Notice of Lease Sale is published in the Federal Register describing the areas and the terms of the lease sale. The lease sale is usually held within 30 to 90 days thereafter in an appropriate city within the area. On the average, this period from beginning of interest to the lease sale date will cover 2 years. It is believed that all multiple use interests have been taken into consideration in past lease sales.

BLOWOUT PROTECTION

It is mandatory to the oil company lessee and the Interior Department as Federal lessor that all producing wells be properly drilled and produced, and that no well be permitted to blow out of control. Stringent requirements prescribe blowout prevention equipment which must be installed on each drilling well. Technical improvements are constantly being made on this type of equipment, and very rarely does a drilling well go out of control. Out of the 6,300 wells drilled on Federal offshore leases, there have been only 15 blowouts during drilling; 12 of the 15 were gas blowouts which caused no pollution. In the three remaining blowouts, two were fired to minimize pollution; the other well was brought under control in 15 minutes by the blowout preventer.

PLUGGING AND ABANDONMENT OF WELLS

Not all wells drilled on Federal leases are completed for production. Thousands of wells prove to be dry holes; that is, no oil or gas is discovered. These wells must be plugged and pipe and casing cut off below the ocean floor, guaranteeing a clean floor for the fishermen. Stringent requirements are in effect and close supervision of abandonments are made by Department engineers and technicians.

SUBSURFACE SAFETY DEVICES

An important piece of equipment in an offshore producing well is the subsurface safety device. This device is a fail-safe mechanical instrument located inside the well tubing below the surface of the ocean floor that will automatically shut-in the well if anything happens to the equipment on the well above. This prevents a loss or waste of the oil or gas and the danger of escaping hydrocarbons. The Department requires automatic subsurface and surface safety devices on all of its Federal lease operations. As with the blowout prevention measures, these safety devices minimize the dangers to the living resources.

CONTROL OF POLLUTION

Pollution of the oceans by escaping oil cannot be tolerated. Strict requirements and supervision are in effect on the Federal offshore leases. Careful inspections of offshore producing facilities are continually conducted by Department technicians in conjunction with strict inspection programs by the oil companies.

DRILLING AND PRODUCING METHODS

Oil companies compete by seeking better processes, better products, and better ways to move, store, and handle crude oil and products. Economic progress in the highly competitive petroleum industry is achieved to a large extent by finding new and better ways to carry out the many jobs necessary to produce oil and gas.

Of particular interest to the fishermen, boat enthusiasts, and others in New England is the possibility of future oil and gas operations on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf. Certainly large reserves off the East Coast would be strategically located to supply the vast domestic and industrial requirements for gas on the Atlantic Seaboard, which could greatly expand if the area were freed of its dependence on pipeline gas from the Southwest.

It seems improbable at the present rates of development that there will be a lease sale and test drilling for oil and gas in the Atlantic Ocean in less than 4 to 6 years. Drilling equipment will consist of floating or movable-type rigs. This permits drilling of wells with only temporary use of the water surface. If oil or gas is discovered in paying quantities in an area such as on Georges Bank, additional oil and gas leasing, drilling, and production will proceed cautiously. Judging from developments in other areas, fixed, permanent platforms will be installed, designed so that a large number of wells may be drilled directionally from each platform. There are two 60-well platforms off California on State lands. Economics will dictate that these expensive platforms be spaced as widely apart as feasible. The distances between platforms would depend to a great extent on the depth of the oil producing formation. For example, if the producing formation were at a depth of 8,000 feet, the distance between platforms would probably be 2 miles or more; for production from a depth of 10,000 feet, the distance could be 3 miles or more. The use of multiwell platforms provides maximum utilization of a very small surface area to develop a very large subsurface area, and because of the spacing, causes minimal interference with navigation and fishing.

UNDERWATER COMPLETIONS

As offshore exploration progresses into greater depths, problems of drilling and production multiply. The pattern of leasing in new areas has been that the shallowest water areas are leased first, progressing slowly into deeper water. Experimentation in underwater completion techniques and equipment is being conducted now in the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean; the objective is to permit the producing wellheads to be located on the ocean floor.

At the present time there are only 3 producing underwater completions among the 3,600 producing wells on the Outer Continental Shelf. However, many wells have been capped on the ocean floor, temporarily awaiting decision to either abandon or put into production. We can foresee that problems involving the entanglement of trawl nets will have to be closely examined if and when oil or gas should be discovered off New England. The oil companies themselves will be looking for ways to avoid loss or damage to their submerged equipment.

BURIAL OF PIPELINES

Pipelines which bring oil and gas to shore or to central platforms must be installed so they do not unduly obstruct other use of the area. Each area of oil production offshore exhibits its own problems as to pipelining. Burial of pipelines is required generally, but a waiver of this requirement may be granted, subject to the condition that the operator demonstrate within a specified time after installation that the line is not a hazard to fishing operations. Our experience has been that in most areas the lines bury themselves, wholly or partially, in such a manner that they have not been a problem for fishermen.

COOPERATIVE PLANNING

Recognition of oil and fishing industry problems in the Gulf of Mexico has resulted in the formation of a Fishing Industry Advisory Committee advisory to the Oil and Gas Supervisor. If geophysical operations, pollution, or any other aspect of offshore operations present a major problem, a subcommittee will recommend the establishment of a specialized group to find a solution. The Fishing Industry Advisory Committee is a permanent body, whereas each subcommittee is regarded as only semi-permanent pending solution of the assigned problem. The idea behind the small specialized group is that local problems can be resolved by the people directly involved.

It is our intention to identify problems as they arise and solve them before they become insurmountable. Communication between the agencies, fishing industry and oil industry helps to proclude unilateral establishment of procedures or practices which are unacceptable to another agency or group. Solutions must necessarily evolve through people who understand the problems and are aware of related difficulties.

The complexity of the areas of conflict is decreased by mutual understanding and respect. Thus, in an atmosphere of give and take, it is possible to effect full development of our resources to the benefit of everyone.

CONCLUSION

The exploration for oil and gas is now going on in several large regions of the Outer Continental Shelf where fishing is a major industry and oil and gas are being produced in the Gulf of Mexico, a large OCS region where fishing is a major industry. Multiple use of OCS lands and the development of several resources have proved to be compatible. Experience and procedures for the resolution of operating problems can be adapted to new areas such as New England. Lines of responsibility within the Department of the Interior for communication and consultation between affected Bureaus have already been formalized. A specified office will act for both the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries and Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in the New England area in dealings on OCS matters with the Geological Survey and Bureau of Land Management. The responsible officers of Survey and the Bureau have been specified.

Additional steps are being considered for implementation in New England as the needs arise; these can be outlined as follows:

It is contemplated that through the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries a suitable system for monitoring explosive devices, if used, will be instituted and BCF will consult with representatives of the fishing industry and State fishery agencies on its constitution and operations.

Further, requirements for necessary monitoring of explosive devices will be incorporated by the Geological Survey in exploration permits such as State agencies require on the West Coast.

The industrial trend is toward the greater use of nonexplosive devices and this trend will be fostered by the Geological Survey by not approving the use of explosives when an alternative method will give the needed information.

The Department urges interested parties in New England to consider ways and means of forming a regional organization to deal with operating problems, if and when commercial oil and gas fields are developed. Such an organization might be set up as a committee including the several fishing interests, State agencies, and oceanographic scientists and marine engineers of the region. Technical subcommittees, such as those formed from time to time on the Gulf Coast, could be set up to deal with specific problems as they arise.