NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION

WRITTEN FOR ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA, AND REPRINTED BY COURTESY OF THE PUBLISHERS.

All of the nations laying claim to any part in the civilization of the world sustain some kind of a system of common instruction. This is not only true now but it has been true as far back as history runs. Even the pagan nations which have consistently defied civilizations have held and exemplified certain ethical principles, various classes of knowledge, and many interesting and expert accomplishments which they have taught to their young. Some of the nations which we would not quickly classify as civilized maintain not only schools, but schools of differing grades and in some cases they are related together in systems of very considerable organized efficiency. The civilized nations have all developed, either under public or private control, institutions comprising school systems, often extending from the kindergarten to the university, and in many cases they have added elaborately equipped and purposeful educational systems going far beyond the functions of schools. The monarchial governments have educated a favored class more or less exclusively, giving but the rudiments of knowledge to the masses. The democratic governments have opened schools and other educative instrumentalities more and more to all the people. We are to present here, in a necessarily general way, the salient features of these different national systems of education, and will begin with those of the simplest form and the least international pretentions, and later take up those which are more ambitious and more elaborately and expensively organized. The order of presentation, however, must not be taken to indicate any close or deliberate arrangement of these different systems in the order of their excellence. It is not practicable to present all, or to present any very completely, and the order of arrangement is not to be taken as significant of merit beyond the general fact that we begin with the simpler and proceed to the more complex forms of organization and administration.

China. China has undoubtedly maintained a system of instruction for the children of the higher class and propagated certain very definite philosophical theories for thousands of years. The Imperial government provides a system of examinations, but leaves the training to parents or guardians. Schools are mainly supported by pri

vate subscriptions. The rich employ tutors for their sons. The girls count for little. The conditions of the masses are hard. Some classes maintain clan schools for their own children. Charity schools, supported by philanthropy, exist here and there. The best schools are conducted by the missionaries. The greater number of children are mainly without education. In recent years the Imperial government has established a university, a normal school, and a school of languages, and some of the provincial governments have opened colleges and military and naval academies. One province is attempting a system of graded schools. The whole school system is inchoate. Control by parents and filial regard for parents are national fetiches, regardless of the fitness of the parent for the exercise of control or for worship, and no duty of the state to the ignorant child of the masses is anywhere asserted.

Spain. Spain has a system of primary schools. It is supported by local funds. The municipalities are by law charged with maintaining schools but the obligatory provisions do not seem to be much enforced. Worse than all, there is apparently but little educational sentiment. It seems strange that a people with such a long and, in some regards, an heroic history—almost conquering the world at one time and a people with so much artistic feeling and so many polite accomplishments should have so little educational initiative. But it is so little that in the absence of government support and compulsion the schools are disjointed and often superficial. So far as the scheme of the educational laws goes it seems well enough, but it fails in the vital points of application and compulsion. Primary instruction is divided into three classes, viz: first, instruction for infants between three and six years, elementary instruction between six and nine, and superior instruction for children between nine and twelve. The work covers the ordinary primary subjects familiar in America. Some advanced schools are being developed and in many of the provinces there are normal schools for training teachers. The teachers' salaries seem to be determined somewhat by the size of the towns and vary from $150 to $900 per year. In addition to the absence of educational sentiment and initiative there is the no less notable absence of higher institutions to give zest and guidance to elementary schools. A census taken in 1860 shows that 20 per cent of the population could read and write, that 4.6 per cent could read only and that 73.3 per cent could neither read nor write; a census taken in 1889 shows that 28.5 per cent could read and write, that 3.4 per cent could read only, and that 68.1 per cent could neither read nor write; the last census, taken

in 1900, shows that out of a total population of 18,607,674 there were 11,869,486, or 63 per cent who could neither read nor write. Here is an ancient empire with history and traditions, conspicuous position and great resources, with extraordinary culture of a kind, and with varied refined accomplishments, and yet the masses are in sodden ignorance. It is not because of the lack of laws nor because there are no schools. It is because the laws are meaningless, because of false views of life, because Spanish history, with all of its valor, has not made for true civilization.

Italy. In Italy at least one lower grade school is required to be maintained in every commune. Communes of more than 4000 inhabitants must establish a high school. Classical instruction is provided in about a thousand institutions and technical instruction in about 400 advanced technical schools. There are many universities, of more or less importance. The leading libraries and art galleries are extremely rich in their possessions. These institutions exert a very considerable influence upon the intellectual life of the kingdom, as they certainly do upon the culture of the world.

Attendance upon the elementary schools seems to be enforced, but it does not extend beyond the ninth year. The elementary schools are supported by municipalities. The character of the schools is looked after by government school inspectors. Religious instruction is no longer obligatory. Many schools are supported by the church, in which, of course, religion is taught. There are also many private schools established to serve one or another special end. In all of these the government requirements, which are not onerous, have to be observed. Education is practically free up to the university. Illiteracy is growing less. It is now about 35 per cent and has decreased by about half in the present generation. There are many schools for special purposes, such as art, agriculture, mining, business methods, etc. There are 150 training schools for teachers, with 20,000 attendants. The government does much for musical training. The growth of religious toleration in the kingdom and the added intermingling with other peoples are clearly aiding the progress of Italian education.

Japan. Japan presents probably the most conspicuous illustration in the world of the quick formation and the rapid evolution of a national system of education. In 40 years the Japanese people have passed from a chaotic educational situation to one very definitely, very completely, and very systematically and philosophically organized and administered. Where so much has been done in so short a time there is undue tendency to exaggerate statement and com

mendation, but there can be no doubt about the spirit and purpose and plan and determination which have accomplished so much being entitled to the most enthusiastic admiration and approval, even though we distinguish the fact that the things accomplished could not, in so short a time and under such conditions, come abreast of the educational progress of some of the older and more democratic nations.

The elementary school system is practically universal, there being 27,000 schools in 1902-3. The attendance of children between six and fourteen is compulsory, and the people in Japan seem to be in the habit of doing as the law directs. In 1902-3 the attendance of both boys and girls was more than 90 per cent of the school population. Comparing this with the situation before the Japan-China War of 1893-94, an increase of 33 per cent in attendance in less than ten years is apparent. The attendance of girls is nearly equal to that of boys. The number of teachers is over 90,000. The schools above the elementary grade seem to consist of a half dozen secondary schools whose function is to prepare students for the Imperial Universities at Tokio and Kioto, and for various art and industrial schools. The universities embrace faculties of law, medicine, engineering, literature, science, and agriculture. In 1903 the number of resident instructors in the University of Tokio was 222 and the number of students 2880. There are many libraries and museums. Education seems not only to be pervasive but very intensive in Japan. The observation of other peoples by the Japanese is wide and keen, and they quickly adapt to their own ends whatever attracts their attention in other lands. The government has been accustomed to send the most prominent young men to European and American universities to be educated, but this hardly seems necessary any longer. However, the diplomatic representatives of Japan are exceedingly and uniformly alert in observing and reporting everything which may prove advantageous to the intellectual progress of the empire, and many special commissioners are sent abroad to study subjects of particular interest to the educational, military, and industrial activities of the Empire.

Perhaps it ought to be observed here that in Japan, as in all governments where the form of government is so extremely monarchial and classes among the people are well defined, some education may be pretty nearly universal while all education is not so. This is much, very much, better than nothing, but it is not all. The system does not open the higher schools to the masses, or at least it does not encourage the child of the masses to seek their advan

tages. So much is ordinarily true of all nations where classes are distinctly differentiated. But it must be said that the educational system of Japan has at once come to be remarkably balanced and diversified. It expresses the traits and promotes the progress of a people with marked characteristics. The elementary part of the school system is not only universal but, better still, the mighty and conclusive power of the government is exercised to have the elementary schools provide the beginnings of learning to all the children, boys and girls alike. Since 1900 tuition in the elementary schools has been free. The training of the teachers is thorough, the discipline of the teaching force excellent, and the supervision is close and under immediate government control. The methods for enforcing attendance are effective and apparently there is no thought of evasion. This is surely putting monarchial government to its best uses and it is not for us to say that such a form of government exercised for such ends, over such a people, is not quite as suitable as any other. Great Britain and Ireland. In England, Scotland, and Ireland we have our conspicuous illustration of a people who could set the limits to the power of the king, and establish government by the suffrage and under a constitution, without marked or general educational progress. From the beginnings of English history a small number of high grade universities with a few tributary fitting schools have trained the sons of the nobility, while the elementary education of the masses has been meager, precarious, and lethargic. There has never been before the present generation—if indeed it may be said that there is now any common school system in England. There have been elementary schools, upon one footing or another, nearly or quite everywhere, and the habit of sending children to school has been general, but these schools have not been under popular control, and they have not led up to higher institutions. They have lacked in self-activity, spontaneity, and aggressiveness. As a consequence the masses have the rudiments of learning, and this, with the strength and balance of the native character, means very much. But the fact remains that because the elementary schools have really had no connection with the schools above, the children of the masses are without educational opportunity and the educational system lacks in national coherency, strength, and elasticity.

Why is this so among such a great people who have done so much for freedom and constitutionalism? No doubt the answer is found in the prevalence of ecclesiasticism, in the measure of control which the Established Church exerts over the learning of the kingdom,