ances and during solar noise storms. Detection of the absorption produced by thermal radiation could be markedly reduced by shielding. For the 1,700 kilometres spacing of control posts the minimum altitude for complete surveillance of nuclear explosions of 10–20 kilotons is about 100 kilometres. 5. The electromagnetic pulse method for detecting nuclear explosions was recommended by the Geneva Conference of Experts for inclusion in the Detection and Identification System for the detection of atmospheric nuclear explosions. It is technically feasible to use this method for the detection of nuclear explosions taking place at altitudes up to about 1,000 kilometres and perhaps higher. The method suffers from possible confusion with lightning flashes in thunderstorm areas. This method has particular value in the polar areas of the aurora where lightning flashes are rare. C. General Remarks on the Assessments All assessments of the capabilities and limitations of the methods for the detection of nuclear explosions at high altitudes are based on the present level of scientific knowledge. The assessments of ranges of detection of high altitude explosions were made in the light of present knowledge regarding background levels due to natural phenomena. Since knowledge concerning the natural phenomena in the upper atmosphere and cosmic space is still incomplete but in a state of rapid growth, it is considered that the actual detection ranges attainable by the various methods discussed above will in the future be more precisely determined. The detection ranges of the methods assessed in Section A, paragraphs 1-4, have been estimated so that the number of signals, caused by known or estimated backgrounds from natural phenomena, which could be mistaken for a nuclear explosion shall be negligibly small. For the methods assessed in Section A paragraph 5 and Section B paragraphs 1-5, no assessment of the rate of erroneous signals is possible at present. D. Recommendations on Techniques and Instrumentation for the Detection and Identification of Nuclear Explosions at High Altitudes Above the Earth for Consideration by the Conference for Incorporation in the Detection and Identification System The Technical Working Group, on the basis of the discussions and conclusions of the Geneva Conference of Experts, makes the following recommendations concerning techniques and instrumentation for consideration by the Conference for incorporation in the Detection and Identification System: 1. A system should be established consisting of 5-6 earth satellites placed in orbits at altitudes of more than 30,000 kilometres. The orbits should be so established and the relative positions of the satellites so arranged as to ensure complete surveillance of the earth and outer space in accordance with the capabilities and limitations of the techniques set forth in Section A, paragraphs 1-4 and 6, above. The following instruments should be placed in the satellites: (i) a multiple coincidence arrangement of suitable counters for the detection of gamma rays, as assessed in Section A, paragraph 1; (ii) suitable counters for detecting delayed gamma rays, as assessed in Section A, paragraph 2; 91298-63-8 (iii) neutron counters, employing a moderator, as assessed in Section A, paragraph 3; (iv) a photomultiplier array or thin inorganic scintillation counters covered with thin foil for detection of soft X-rays, as assessed in Section A, paragraph 4. 2. In the event that it is deemed necessary for technical or economic reasons to establish an earth satellite system at low altitudes, the following two systems are recommended for consideration: (a) A system of 6-10 satellites appropriately placed in nearcircular orbits at altitudes of 500-700 kilometres which would assure complete surveillance of the space around the earth except in limited and predictable regions below an altitude of about 2,000 kilometres. (b) A system of 24 satellites appropriately placed in nearcircular orbits at altitudes of 500-700 kilometres which would ensure complete surveillance of the space around the earth except in limited and predictable regions below an altitude of about 10,000 kilometres. The instrumentation and equipment should be those set forth in paragraphs 1 and 5 of this Section. It is to be understood that the systems described in paragraphs 1, 2(a) and 2(b) of this Section shall not be operating simultaneously. 3. A satellite should be placed into an appropriate elliptical orbit around the earth to provide maximum coverage of the region in the earth's magnetic field in which electron trapping occurs, as assessed in paragraphs 5 and 8 of Section A. The satellite should have sufficient payload to carry a simple electron counter and suitable equipment to ensure that all the required data can be transmitted to a suitable number of control posts. 4. In the event that it is deemed necessary to extend the capabilities of the system to provide increased coverage of the regions behind the moon and the sun away from the earth and to make nuclear testing in space more difficult by increasing the weight of shielding necessary for concealment, a system of four satellites should be placed in appropriate solar orbits, of a radius approximating that of the earth around the sun, when the state of technology permits. Each satellite should have sufficient payload to carry a photomultiplier array or thin inorganic scintillation counters covered with thin foil, for detection of soft X-rays as assessed in paragraph 4 of Section A and suitable transmitting equipment to ensure that all the required data can be transmitted to a suitable number of control posts. 5. Each satellite should carry instrumentation to achieve the maximum reliability and range of detection of nuclear explosions in space and carry apparatus for checking the performance of the equipment of the satellite. All required data, including levels of background, signals, and performance data should be transmitted to a suitable number of control posts. Suitable equipment for receiving and analyzing data should be installed in these control posts in order to ensure the rapid and reliable analysis of signals received from the satellite. 6. The following techniques and instrumentation should be installed at ground control posts: a. Multiple channel optical detectors, suitable for observing direct visible light as assessed in Section B, paragraph 1, at each of the control posts. b. Optical equipment suitable for observing fluorescence in the upper atmosphere as assessed in Section B, paragraph 2, at each of the control posts. c. Equipment suitable for measuring the absorption of cosmic radio noise in the ionosphere operating at two or more frequencies in the 30-100 megacycle range, as assessed in Section B, paragraph 4, at each control post. d. Equipment suitable for recording radio signals as already recommended for inclusion at control posts in the Report of the Geneva Conference Experts. For various reasons the Technical Working Group did not come to an accord regarding a recommendation concerning the matter of detection of nuclear explosions at high altitude by the method of backscatter radar as described in Section B, paragraph 3. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, July 14, 1959 1 CCIR COSPAR ABBREVIATIONS International Radio Consultative Committee Committee on Space Research Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year International Atomic Energy Agency International Civil Aviation Organization International Council of Scientific Unions International Geophysical Year International Telecommunication Union CSAGI IAEA ICAO ICSU IGY ITU UNESCO UNICEF UNRWA URSI WHO WMO World Meteorological Organization United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees International Scientific Radio Union World Health Organization NOTE BY THE RAPPORTEUR 1. By resolution 1348 (XIII), of 13 December 1958, the General Assembly established an Ad Hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space consisting of the representatives of Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Poland, Sweden, the Union of Soviet Socialist Re 1 General Assembly Official Records: Fourteenth Session, Agenda item 25, Annexes, doc. A/4141, July 14, 1959, pp. 1-27. For the discussion of this item, see Official Records of the General Assembly, Fourteenth Session, First Committee, 1079th to 1081st meetings; and ibid., Plenary Meetings, 856th meeting. publics, the United Arab Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America. 2. The work of the Ad Hoc Committee was conducted at United Nations Headquarters in New York. It began on 6 May and concluded on 25 June 1959. 3. The representatives of the following States took part in the work: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, France, Iran, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States. 4. The Committee elected the following officers: Chairman: Mr. Koto Matsudaira (Japan) Vice-Chairman: Mr. Mario Amadeo (Argentina) Rapporteur: Mr. Joseph Nisot (Belgium) 5. The Committee established two committees of the whole: one a technical committee, under the chairmanship of Mr. D. C. Rose (Canada); and the other, a legal one, under the chairmanship of Professor Antonio Ambrosini (Italy). The Technical Committee prepared part II of the report and the Legal Committee part III of the report. At the request of the Ad Hoc Committee, the SecretaryGeneral presented a report which covered paragraph 1(a) of the General Assembly resolution and constituted the basis for part I of the Committee's report. 6. The Ad Hoc Committee and its committees of the whole have held twenty-five meetings. They were given valuable assistance by the United Nations Secretariat, especially by Mr. Sanford Schwarz, Secretary of the Ad Hoc Committee and of the Technical Committee; Mr. Oscar Schachter, Secretary of the Legal Committee; and Mr. Geoffrey S. Murray, the representative of the Secretary-General. 7. By the terms of resolution 1348 (XIII), the Ad Hoc Committee was required to report to the General Assembly on the four following matters described in paragraph 1 of the resolution: "(a) The activities and resources of the United Nations of its specialized agencies and of other international bodies relating to the peaceful uses of outer space; b) The area of international co-operation and programmes in the peaceful uses of outer space which could appropriately be undertaken under United Nations auspices to the benefit of States irrespective of the state of their economic or scientific development, taking into account the following proposals, inter alia: "(i) Continuation on a permanent basis of the outer space research now being carried on within the framework of the International Geophysical Year; "(ii) Organization of the mutual exchange and dissemination of information on outer space research; "(iii) Co-ordination of national research programmes for the study of outer space, and the rendering of all possible assistance and help towards their realization; "(c) The future organizational arrangements to facilitate international co-operation in this field within the framework of the United Nations; "(d) The nature of legal problems which may arise in the carrying out of programmes to explore outer space.' 8. Each of these four matters is the subject of a separate part of the present report, which the Ad Hoc Committee adopted unanimously on 25 June 1959: part I: paragraph 1(a); part II: paragraph 1(b); part III: paragraph 1(d); part IV: paragraph 1(c). PART I PARAGRAPH 1 (a) OF GENERAL ASSEMBLY 1. The Ad Hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, at its first meeting on 6 May 1959, requested the Secretary-General to prepare a report on the subject matter of paragraph 1(a) of General Assembly resolution 1348 (XIII), namely, "The activities and resources of the United Nations, of its specialized agencies and of other international bodies relating to the peaceful uses of outer space". On 16 June, the Secretary-General submitted a comprehensive and valuable report (A/AC.98/4) to the Committee on these matters, which stands as a part of the documentary records of the Committee. 2. The present part I is based on the Secretary-General's report. The Committee has sought to summarize the pertinent data in such a way as to facilitate future United Nations discussions relating to the peaceful uses of outer space. I. INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATIONS A. THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC UNIONS 3. The principal non-governmental international bodies which are interested and active in space research are the international scientific unions in the several major fields of science which benefit by experiments utilizing sounding rockets, satellites, and space probes. These are: International Astronomical Union, International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, International Scientific Radio Union, International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, International Union of Biological Sciences, International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, International Union of Physiological Sciences, International Union of Biochemistry. 4. The International Union of Mathematics has also expressed some interest. The interests of the remaining three international scientific unions, i.e., International Geographical Union, International Union of Crystallography, and International Union of the History of Science lie outside the space field. 5. The objects of the unions are: (a) To promote the study of problems relating to their scientific fields; (b) To initiate, facilitate and co-ordinate research into, and investigation of, those problems which require international cooperation; (c) To provide for discussion, comparisons and publication. 6. The unions are maintained by the voluntary, part-time work of a small group of active scientists elected for limited terms. The administration is small and flexible. The activities are directed to |