proliferation and metastasis 3 characterizing cancer. This wholly new theory, verified in preliminary tests, has opened a promising new avenue for possible chemical control of cancer.

Another example from NASA's biological research highlights the interactions of science and technology and how hard it is to separate the components of science and engineering. Dr. Fernandez-Moran at the University of Chicago was working on cell structure for NASA, but his requirements carried him beyond the range of commercially available electron microscopes.

His resulting improvements produced the world's most powerful instrument of this class, capable of magnifying objects 20 million times and resolving images down to two angstroms. To handle the electric power necessary to operate the microscope without melting required another breakthrough to cool the magnetic lens of the microscope: the first large-scale continuous closed-cycle production of superfluid helium.

In order to use the full magnifying power of the microscope, it was necessary to prepare specimens to the same scale. The diamond knife invented by Dr. Fernandez-Moran to solve this problem can dissect away portions of a molecule or cut a hair into 10,000 length-wise strips. In order to record images from the electron microscope, a film virtually without grain was required-and invented. It works instantaneousy and can be converted readily into color images by interference microscopy. These developments resulting from this one scientific investigation illustrate the many benefits in various fields which work in space science is stimulating.

The intellectual understanding of the universe around us is at the heart of man's ultimate superiority over undiscerning animal instinct. The pursuit of this intellectual understanding is one of the greatest of human adventures.

The space program has probably done more to interest young people and the average citizen in science than any other activity. The thoughtful laymen is impressed and appreciates the opportunity to share the excitement of discovery which NASA has provided. This result alone is of very substantial value to the Nation and to science.

I will now move on to describe the impact of the space program on three specific fields: meteorology, communications, and management.

4. IMPACT ON METEOROLOGY

It is rare for a new field of technology to produce practical applications in its first few years, but this happened in the early 1960's when the space program developed and put into operation revolutionary new tools and information systems for weather forecasting. These included:

Sounding rockets to take vertical profiles of the atmosphere from surface to space;

Satellites to provide a continuous watch of the earth's moving cloud

cover;

3 Metastasis-The transfer of disease from one part of the body to another not directly connected with it, with development of the characteristic lesion in the new location.

Angstrom (after Anders J. Angstrom, Swedish physicist).-A unit of length equal to one ten-thousandth of a micron or one hundred-millionth of a centimeter, used in expressing the length of light waves.

Solar observation satellites to monitor the sun's cycle of activities; Satellites to track storms, measure winds, record the temperature at different heights, and report on the moisture content of the atmosphere;

Ground and airborne radar and lasers to probe weather conditions from below;

Computer systems, mathematical models and software programs that can receive and analyze vast amounts of global data from many sources to make possible more accurate forecasting; and

Data transmission systems to link together the various parts into one global meteorological network.

VALUE OF SPACE WEATHER FORECASTING

Progress in weather satellites continues to be rapid. Since April of last year, a new infrared spectrometer 5 on Nimbus III has been measuring the vertical temperature of the atmosphere. It has proven highly accurate, providing every day electronically from orbit the equivalent of 10,000 conventional atmospheric soundings by balloon or sounding rocket. The first use of this capability in operational forecasting began last June, and has resulted in significant improvements in predicting features of upper atmospheric flow.

Important as it is, forecasting is only one part of the weather picture that impacts our daily lives. Probably the most dramatic impact of weather satellites is their ability to detect and track major storms, hurricanes, and threatening weather patterns early enough and precisely enough to permit timely warning and decision. Examples include routing of air traffic, marine navigation, agricultural warnings, water management, and the protection or evacuation of threatened flood and storm areas.

50,000 LIVES MAY HAVE BEEN LOST IN HURRICANE CAMILLE WITHOUT WEATHER SATELLITE

Camille was first observed and then tracked by satellite. The hurricane's path, force, and extent were predicted early and accurately enough to permit authorities to evacuate some 70,000 people from the gulf coast. Without early warning, without tracking, without the credibility provided by actual satellite pictures and data, ESSA estimates that 50,000 people might have perished in this devastating storm. This is not an isolated case; many other instances can be cited.

HURRICANE LAURIE

In November of 1969, Hurricane Laurie also threatened the gulf coast. Observation and tracking by satellite provided the basis for safely predicting that Laurie would not strike the coast. The savings here from the decision not to evacuate and not to protect property are estimated to have exceeded $3 million.

This kind of benefit is not confined to the United States. In late 1968, heavy rains threatened to overload a reservoir in Mexico's Nazas

5 Infra-red spectrometer-Instrument fitted for measurements in the infra-red portion of the spectrum.

River valley and break the earthen dam. Releasing the water to relieve the pressure would have inundated two towns-Torreon and Gomez Palacios and produced a critical shortage of irrigation water later. On the basis of satellite pictures showing clearing weather, ministry officials made the decision to keep the dam closed. The rains indeed stopped, the dam held, saving both the water supply and the towns.

WATCH EVERY MAJOR STORM

These are but a few examples; since 1966 U.S. weather satellites have watched every major storm threatening the Nation. In 1969 alone, 12 Atlantic hurricanes, 10 eastern Pacific hurricanes, and 17 western Pacific typhoons were identified and tracked by satellites. We now have the first atlas of Pacific cloud and weather patterns, covering the period 1962 to 1969, assembled from data available only by satellite.

Color TV cloud pictures from NASA's experimental Applications Technology Satellite (ATS) in geostationary orbit are now being used in near-real time. The Navy uses weather satellite pictures for ice patrols and to schedule Antarctic resupply. Airline pilots at Kennedy Airport routinely receive a weather photo of their transatlantic

route.

FIFTY COUNTRIES USE WEATHER SATELLITES

One final point: satellites and weather are inherently global systems. By using automatic readout systems, every nation in the world can benefit from the automatic picture taking (APT) systems onboard U.S. weather satellites. Over 50 countries are now using this to view daily weather patterns over their own territory-a wonderful example of the use of space for the benefit of men everywhere.

These same countries also benefit from cloud picture mosaics routinely made available by the weather bureau to Europe, Asia, Australia, and North and South America. The weather mosaic is built up from individual weather photos and processed by computer; it is then retransmitted from the ESSA ground station via NASA satellites. This is a very real example of the combined benefits-national and international that space systems are creating for the average citizen.

5. IMPACT ON COMMUNICATIONS

Before discussing communication satellites, let me cite a few telecommunications statistics to put this important development into perspective. In 1960, there were less than 75 million phones in America; we now have about 120 million. In 1960, Americans made 18 billion phone calls; last year we made nearly 200 billion. Before the end of this day about 485 million phone calls will have been made in this country.

The value of the U.S. telecommunications business, including service equipment, grew from $22 billion per year in 1960 to over $47 billion now. This industry has doubled its circuit mileage every 10 years since 1935.

• Geostationary orbit-The orbit of a spacecraft (at 22,300 miles altitude) where the angular rotation of the craft matches the angular rotation of the earth. In this situation the craft appears to remain stationary over one point on earth. (Also called geosynchronous orbit.)

NEW USES FOR TELECOMMUNICATIONS

New uses are continually being found for telecommunications. Banks, stock exchanges, hotel reservations, cable TV, hospitals, computer centers and other new customers are appearing at an increasing rate. We are literally in the midst of a global communications explosion.

The newest development that can help meet this demand and increase service is, of course, the communications satellite. It can supplement cable, radio, or microwave links where they exist, can provide their equivalent where they do not, and can, literally, interconnect every part of the world.

As this committee knows, the first successful communication satellites were Echo, Telstar, Relay, Syncom, and the Soviet Molniya. In 1965, the new Comsat Corporation launched Early Bird, and Intelsat, an international consortium, was created to handle global satellite communications. The viability and significance of satellite communications have been proven in the last 4 years, as Comsat's annual revenues have grown from $2.5 million to nearly $50 million.

This new benefit from the space program is obvious to TV viewers. The Olympics were first televised internationally in 1964 from Tokyo, and made available in real time to U.S. audiences. The largest audience in world history-over half a billion people, one-sixth of the world's population-saw man's first steps on the moon. In 1960, you could not send live TV across the Atlantic; by 1965 it was possible but expensive; by 1969 the quality has been improved and the cost reduced to 19 percent of the 1965 rate.

Current Intelsat satellites have a capacity of 1,200 two-way telephone circuits-or four-color TV channels; the next generation scheduled for next year will handle 5,000 two-way circuits. Present Intelsats already operate at 75 percent of capacity, and demand is increasing. The number of commercial ground stations is growing rapidly, toofrom five in 1965 to 52 in 1971, with station cost decreasing from $15 million for the earliest to less than $4 million for current stations.

An example of new applications was provided last month by the 18th International Congress for Post-Graduate Medical Instruction, in which Dr. Charles Berry of our Manned Spacecraft Center participated. The American doctors stayed at Houston and San Antonio; their counterparts were in Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. Satellites provided closed circuit television and two-way voice circuits between the United States and Europe, enabling a reported 30,000 European doctors to hear and see the 3-hour transatlantic conference.

At present, communication satellites are largely used for transoceanic traffic, providing economical links across the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. They are having major impact. Before satellites, a west-coast-to-Japan cable circuit cost $15,000 per month; Comsat was able to offer this service at a charge of $4,000.

The recent decision by the FCC to entertain suggestions for a U.S. domestic satellite system opens a whole range of potential new services, including low-cost message, data, and television transmissions coast to coast-and anywhere in between. The feasibility of domestic service has been well demonstrated-and the response from industry to the FCC invitation indicates that the potential for the application of satellite technology to U.S. internal communications is very high.

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The communication satellite is far more than a replacement for phone or wireless-it is a new kind of capability. After NASA's initial experiments, we turned over Syncom II and III to the Defense Department for their trans-Pacific communications requirements until they could meet these needs themselves.

As you know, the Department of Defense now has its own nearsynchronous communications satellites in operation, as well as a tactical communications satellite. NASA has just launched the British Skynet and NATO-A communications satellites-both built in the United States-in support of joint Western defense needs. All of these systems trace their technical heritage to NASA's communications satellite programs.

ATS TEST FOR PUBLIC BROADCAST

NASA's applications technology satellite, ATS, is being used in a test for the Corporation for Public Broadcast, relaying educational programs from the east coast to the west coast. We also demonstrated the feasibility of using satellites for high-quality, reliable ship-toshore communication over long distances by keeping contact with the SS Santa Lucia from New Jersey to Chile and back with the ATS.

The same satellite proved the feasibility of keeping in communication with aircraft on transoceanic flights a major step toward future space-based air traffic control and navigation systems. We also have used the ATS to relay information from remote instruments and buoys a step toward future data relay satellite systems. A future ATS will broadcast educational television directly into 5,000 Indian villages. Communication satellites thus have great flexibility.

The benefits to society of NASA's communication satellite work are widespread. Communications are the nervous system of organized society. Good global communications are not a luxury today-they are a basic building block for economic and social progress.

From our first experiments in the early 1960's to today, we have come far. Even the 240-circuit Syncom of 1964 already looks antique beside its 1971 descendant, the 5,000-circuit Intelsat-4. NASA has led the already dynamic electronics and telecommunications industry into a new age and provided them with a major new technology.

All of this has been accomplished and the 70-nation Intelsat organization created within 10 years. That fact, of itself, may be unique. The application of new technology has usually required far longerit took a century for the electric motor to graduate from a scientific curiosity to a utilitarian device.

The NASA contribution has been to challenge and stimulate technical advance, forcing new inventions into the marketplace and making them work. This has a national value without a price tag. In my opinion, it is worth, simply, the difference between continuing national progress and falling behind into a position of second best, never again to catch up.

6. IMPACT ON MANAGEMENT

Another important class of achievement from NASA's programs is the demonstrated national capability to organize and manage very large, long-term, global technical enterprises-meeting difficult performance goals on schedule and within budget.