ination. This provision is deleted from the new regulations. The old article further declared that the trust deed must not provide for the appointment of the majority of the governing body by an appointing authority required to belong, or not to belong, to any particular religious denomination. This provision has also disappeared. Further, there need be no majority of representative governors, if at least one-third of the total number of governors are appointed by the local education authority. This arrangement places the denominational secondary schools on almost equal terms with any other secondary school.

The regulations concerning advanced courses for pupils intending to enter universities differ little from those of 1918, when an important change was made in the modern studies, English taking the place of Latin as a main subject. The number of courses approved during the year was 239, of which 138 were in science and mathematics, 26 in classics, and 75 in modern studies. The emphasis laid on the study of English will, no doubt, be in substantial agreement with the recommendations of the departmental committee, recently appointed to inquire into the position of English not only in a liberal education, but in relation to the needs of business, the professions, and the public service.

The day or part-time continuation schools intended under the act for boys and girls between the ages of 14 and 16, and ultimately 14 and 18, remain yet on a voluntary basis. Although the education act was passed in August, 1918, little constructive work has been done in this respect by the local education authorities. The slow progress is undoubtedly due not so much to reluctance on the part of the authorities as to the enormous difficulty in obtaining the necessary staff and building accommodations.

The board of education seems, however, to be anxious to have the scheme developed as early as possible. In a circular issued last July the local education authorities were instructed to prepare and submit schemes for educational developments in their areas. It was urged that "all forms of education shall be considered as parts of a single whole" and "that all local education authorities, so far as their powers extend, shall contribute to the establishment of an adequate national system." Preliminary investigations have been started in numerous places, and a realization of the provisions may be expected in the near future.

Pioneer work in part-time education is at present undertaken by some of the enlightened employers in the so-called works schools. During the year there was a marked increase in attendance during ordinary working hours. The classes were under control of the local education authorities, or the employers themselves, who in many instances provided competent instructors for the systematic training

of the employees in their own works. The establishment of works schools by private enterprise, though encouraged by the board, is viewed by labor with a certain amount of suspicion. Objections are raised that these schools may become biased in form and narrow in scope, and may fail to provide that broad education which is the primary object of day continuation schools.

A memorandum recently prepared by the Labor Party's advisory committee on education states that "the primary object of the new continuation schools should not be to impart specialized industrial or commercial training, but to give boys and girls a good general education, to develop their physique and character, and to prepare them for intelligent citizenship." The program of the Labor Party with regard to continuation education is similar to that issued previously by the departmental committee on juvenile education. The committee recomends, however, that the subjects taught in these classes should have something of a vocational bias, as suggested by the occupation of the young workers.

TEACHERS.

The main difficulty which confronts the authorities in England is the inadequate supply of teachers. For some years past the influx of entrants into the teaching profession has been steadily decreasing, with the result that at present the normal wastage caused by death or resignation can hardly be replaced. In a circular issued in August, 1919, the board of education states that the number of candidates who are admitted to the profession yearly ought to be more than double what it is now. The problem became more serious with the passing of the education act of 1918. Under its provisions a larger reinforcement is required in the public elementary schools. No less than 32,000 teachers will be needed for the new continuation schools. A large number must also be obtained for the new secondary schools, while the nursery schools will also make demands on the supply of teachers. Many education authorities have taken steps to increase teachers' salaries in accordance with the principles suggested in the report of the departmental committee issued in February, 1918, but much more will be needed to attract new candidates.

The London County Council adopted a new scale for elementary school-teachers in May, 1918. While the new figures exhibit considerable improvement over past practice in the payment of salaries, the new scale did not meet the general demand. This necessitated another revision of the scales, according to which assistant teachers in public elementary schools entering the London service will begin at not less than £180 per annum for men and £165 for women. Besides, the progress through the scale of increments to the maximum salary will be considerably quickened. The revised scale will add to the expendi

ture for the current financial year an amount estimated at £629,000. The discontent of teachers, which sometimes resulted in teachers' strikes, led to the belief that the only equitable solution was the adoption of a general scale of salaries on a national rather than local basis. A conference, convened in July, 1919, by the president of the board of education, adopted the following resolutions:

1. That it is desirable to provide a central organization, representative of local education authorities and teachers, to secure the orderly and progressive solution of the salary problem in public elementary schools by agreement, on a national basis, and its correlation with a solution of the salary problem in secondary schools.

2. That for this purpose a standing joint committee of representatives of local education committees on the one side and the national union of teachers on the other, in equal numbers, should be constituted. 3. That for any resolutions of the committee the consent of both sides of the committee should be required.

For the consideration of local interests standing local advisory committees, representative of the teachers and education authorities, have been created in many areas. The object of these committees, defined by the executive committees of the Association of Education Committees and the National Union of Teachers, is not only to look after financial adjustment but also to consider broader issues relating to education.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

The urgent need of a more comprehensive system of agricultural education and research accentuated during the past few years led to far-reaching proposals which entail an expenditure by the State of about £2,000,000 during the next five years. The board of agriculture proposes to encourage higher agricultural education by liberal grants to colleges and universities. It is also hoped in the future to bring the farmer into closer touch with the colleges by the establishment of demonstration farms and other organizations calculated to achieve the same purpose. The local education authorities are to receive from the State £2 for every £1 they expend on agricultural education. This will undoubtedly cause the setting up of a number of farm schools or farm institutes, with short courses for adult students. It is expected that these institutes will also provide facilities for school-teachers who wish to qualify in the rural subjects required in the day continuation schools. The proposals of the board of agriculture are especially opportune in view of the recent recommendations embodied in a very interesting memorandum on the reconstruction of agricultural education in England and Wales issued recently by the agricultural education association.

UNIVERSITIES.

The war has also brought into clearer relief the need of State assistance for the more efficient development of universities in Great Britain and Ireland. A standing committee has been appointed by the Treasury "to inquire into the financial needs of university education in the United Kingdom and to advise the Government as to the application of any grants that may be made by Parliament toward meeting them."

It is felt, for instance, that the universities will have to provide greater facilities for those with meager means who fail to secure a scholarship. Changes are also expected in the position of women students. Finally, there is the problem of readjustment between the various schools of science for more efficient cooperation and specialization of work.

The assumption that State control is bound to have a detrimental effect upon the life of the university loses much weight in view of Mr. Fisher's repeated assertions that the board disclaims any idea. of interference with the affairs of the universities, which must remain free and autonomous,

With the resumption of the university studies interrupted during the past few years came the demand for more practical subjects. Although the campaign for removing the barrier of compulsory Greek at Oxford resulted in a close vote for its retention, the opponents did not give up hope for an early compromise. The science. courses are overcrowded and the modern-language schools are receiving far more attention than in the past. The lack of scientific training in business is to be remedied by the establishment of a school of commerce at the London University. The courses are to lead to a bachelor's and a master's degree. The salient feature of the new courses is that a modern language is to be taken throughout. The languages offered are Polish, Czech, Roumanian, modern Greek, and some of the eastern languages.

III. THE TREND IN THE SCHOOLS OF SCANDINAVIA AFTER THE WAR.

LESSONS OF THE WAR.

The war has simplified the interrelations among the Scandinavian countries. It has removed the menace which Sweden saw in the East and Denmark in the South, and thereby also effected a removal of certain cross-currents in the relations between these two countries themselves. The new outlook is regarded as favorable for the

industrial and educational progress of each country according to its individual character.

Educators in Scandinavia are studying the school systems of other countries, partly with the view of concerted movements toward peace and partly to see how the schools of each country have met the recent crisis and stood the test. The Norsk Skoletidende, February 5, 1919, says that the Germans have set up "information and instruction as their alpha and omega; the building of character has been left either to chance or taken up in the school disciplines on its passive side only-patience, perserverance, thoroughness; not initiative and courage. They have demanded the severity of ‘drill’ in accordance with the words of Moltke, 'military discipline is needed by every community.""" In contradistinction to these principles," continues the Skoletidende, "the British and the Americans have maintained that the forming of character is the chief task of the schools and, to speak with Locke, 'information the least.""

In Denmark, L. Mortensen writing in Vor Ungdon, has reached identical conclusions with reference to the collapse of modern culture during the past few years. Impressed with its lessons, he goes so far as to draft the outlines for the work of an entirely new type of school-one that should have the building of character as its chief aim. None of the schools now in existence, he contends, can do this in a way fully to profit by the lessons of recent events. "Their work is too diffused and their tasks too many and too diverse to admit of the time necessary for the development of character among the pupils." The school he advocates should not supplant but supplement existing types; its main lines should be (1) physical training, (2) continued instruction in general subjects with special stress on vocational training, and (3) means and occasions for idealistic and spirtual influence.

INTERRELATIONS AMONG SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.

The common interests of these countries are being furthered by the resumption of prewar activities and by the forming of new allScandinavian organizations. The Association of the North, formed in 1918 to promote cultural and industrial relations among the peoples of the northern countries, is working for a more closely united Scandinavia. In May, 1919, representatives from Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, and Finland met in Copenhagen and organized an Authors' Association with the purpose of working in their respective fields in closer cooperation. The all-Scandinavian Teachers' Association, besides its work as a body of educators, wields a powerful influence in maintaining northern type characteristics in education in these countries.