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It is plain that not less than two-thirds of the population is pure Indian. In the Province of Esmeraldas, lying in the north, the number of whites is certainly very small; on the coast whites and negroes are fused with Indians. In the Province of Oriente the Indians are probably declining, partly as a consequence of the treatment they have had at the hands of others and partly as a consequence of vice and disease. The whole forest region which slopes toward the Amazon River contains many Indians.

Negro slavery was abolished in 1854. The blacks were never very numerous and as a pure stock are apparently being engulfed, but their stamp persists in the offspring of mixed unions.

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The population of Ecuador is obviously far from being homogeneous. as such has been no barrier to intermixture, but the mestizo prefers association with the white to that with the Indian.

14. PERU

No general census has been taken in Peru for nearly half a century and the census of 1876 can not lay claim to accuracy. Possibly the figure announced as for 1876, 3,699,000 was under the truth, uncommon as it is to err in that direction. For more than 25 years past it has been usual to claim a population of 4,500,000 to 5,500,000; the lower figure is doubtless nearer the truth.

The opinion is very generally held that of this population approximately 60 per cent is pure Indian, while 25 per cent or more is mixed. Not over 10 per cent is native white-more likely, less than 10 per cent-while the remainder includes a few Europeans and many orientals and negroes. The negroes have established themselves principally on the lowlands. The Chinese, who first began to come in 1854 and were prohibited from further coming in 1909, are sometimes held to number as many as 35,000; between them and the Indian women there has been occasional intermarriage. Of Japanese, who began to come much later than the Chinese did, some thousands have entered the country; but it would be difficult to say how many of them are there to-day. Peru was the seat of an ancient civilization, much of which could no longer be explained by the Indians living in the country when the Spanish came. These Indians were themselves very numerous and had attained a civilization in many respects high, higher in fact, in some respects, than that of the Aztecs. But the Spanish regarded these Indians of Peru as less intelligent than the Mexican Indians. The Peruvian Indians also offered a less sturdy resistance to the conquest than the Mexican Indians had done. For a considerable period after the coming of the Spaniards the aborigines decreased in number and some large districts were almost depopulated.

The routine of the lives led by the Indians of Peru to-day is probably not greatly different from what it was in the sixteenth century. Agriculture is largely in their hands, and they follow methods of cultivation which resemble closely those customary several centuries ago. It is true that the proprietors of the soil are the descendants of the conquerors, but these proprietors are not much seen upon their estates. The Indian workers live generally in poverty. Not much education has made its way into the homes of the Indians. Nor do the vicissitudes of politics ordinarily touch them. Peruvian politics are largely monopolized by the white element and by those mestizos who have a considerable infusion of white blood.

15. BOLIVIA

No census of Bolivia has been taken since 1900, when a figure of 1,781,666 persons was reached. Those who prepared this figure made a vague allowance for omissions and only estimated in round numbers the uncivilized Indians of the northern and eastern frontiers. Official estimates of the growth of the population since 1900 have reached a total of 2,500,000 (1919), but the reckoning can claim little accuracy, and it may be that 2,000,000 would be nearer the truth.

How is this population constituted? According to the official estimates of 1900, the pure-blooded Indians comprise not less than 50 per cent of the population, the mestizos not less than 30, and the whites not more than 10. There are also groups of Chinese, negroes, and others... It is most likely, however, that the pure Indian element is really larger-and probably considerably larger than here indicated, and it is almost certain that the really unmixed

white stock is appreciably below 10 per cent. At all events the assumption that white and mestizo together come to 40 per cent of the population is probably mistaken. The official estimates of 1919' hold that only 20 per cent of the whole population commonly speak Spanish, and calls attention to the 30 languages and 40 dialects still widely used in the country. In La Paz itself the largest city in Bolivia, not less than three-quarters of the population, it is safe to say, speak the Indian language of Aymará.

The aboriginal population of Bolivia consists of uncivilized tribes living in the forest and semicivilized societies living elsewhere. Except on some plantations where negro laborers are to be met, the Indians generally constitute the agricultural class. As such they follow methods of cultivation that are mainly traditional. Grazing also is in their charge. In large numbers they are employed in the mines which foreign interests exploit. Most are illiterate and they rarely understand Spanish. Lord Bryce wrote after his visit to Bolivia: "One seldom hears of a pure Indian accomplishing anything, or rising either through war or politics, or in any profession, above the level of his class. * * * Curiosity and ambition are alike wanting to the race." Bolivia is a country which has received extremely few immigrants from European countries. The mestizo population has resulted from fusion of the Spanish conquerors, who, like their successors, brought few women to the country, with the native Indian women. Of the element calling itself white to-day only a meager part is without Indian blood. It is the small pure-white stock, and the larger mestizo stock having a whitish tint, and the still larger mestizo stock, in which the Indian factor is sometimes greater than one-half, that constitute the organized and governing society of Bolivia.

16. CHILE

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In 1920 an official census compiled with more care than most censuses with which this report has been concerned assigned to Chile a population of 3,754,723. This number was greater by half a million than that reached in 1907, the date of the last previous census: The average annual rate of growth in recent years has been just about the same as that found for other periods beginning as far back as 1875.

Both the Spanish and the Indian elements which are the basis of this population were probably of more capable stocks of their respective races than those of the countries lying to the north of Chile. The Spanish included an unusually large number of Basques (of a different race stock from that of the Spanish generally) and of other peoples relatively free from a Moorish admixture. The Indians included, in addition to an element closely akin with the Peruvian natives already described, a type of great physical sturdiness and prowess which resisted encroachment. With their horses and their guns the first Spanish invaders successfully gained a foothold, killing off many of the northerly Indians and reducing others to virtual slavery, but despite their fearsomeness they were forced to stop short as they approached the dwelling ground of the Araucanian Indians. For a long time, in fact, the independence of Araucania was recognized, and it was not till less than half a century ago that the district was really conquered. Fusion of races started very early in Chile. Of that part of the population of to-day calling itself white, and not represented by recent immigrant strains, probably the greater portion contains an intermixture of Indian blood. From most of Chile the pure Indian stock has disappeared, so that it is easier for the mestizo to identify himself with the white. The whiter portion, the creole, holds the political sway of the country and owns the land, while the browner portion with predominance of Indian blood-the great mass of the population-makes the class of farm hands and general labor.

The pure Indians remaining to-day doubtless exceed 100,000 in number, living especially in the provinces of Malleco, Cautin, and Valdivia. They do not seem to be declining in numbers and are perhaps increasing. In no dis

Anuario Geografico y Estadistico de la Republica de Bolivia, 1919, La Paz, 1920, p. 2. 8 J. Bryce, South America; observations and impressions, New York, 1912, p. 184. There has doubtless continued to be fusion of the various elements of the population. Such figures as those compiled for marriages taking place in 1918-19 (Anuario Geografico, etc., 1919, pp. 684-712) showing that whites almost invariably marry whites, mestizos mestizos, Indians Indians, and negroes negroes, are highly incredible.

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trict are they, however, a majority of the inhabitants and in only one apparently are they a half of the inhabitants. The time can not be far distant when the Indians of Chile, including the most resistant type among them, will have merged with the general population. It is, however, worthy of note in passing that the Auracanian Indians do not generally speak Spanish and that a large proportion have never embraced Christianity while the rest combine Christian religion with survivals of their religious customs. They have resisted influences for assimilation as evidenced in these ways more than the Indians of Mexico and elsewhere have done.

As a country of rich resources, with a population more efficient than the population of the more northerly countries, Chile has attracted immigrants. In 1920, 115,763 foreigners were in residence. Among them were 24,775 Spanish, 11,535 Italians (fewer than in 1907, many haviing returned to Europe during the war), 8,551 Germans, 6,924 French, and 6,899 English. There has been much ebb and flow in the alien population year in and year out, but aliens have been coming to Chile for a long time and many strains are now well established. Germans, in particular, have been coming more than half a century, and it is probable that the people of German blood, but of Chilean birth, are now two or three times as numerous as the Germans of German birth; it is a stock which in business and in civic life has won an ascendancy Over the Chilean.

The mass of the population of Chile are apparently in a better condition than those of the northerly Pacific countries. The proportion of literates is somewhat higher; of persons old enough to read, about one-half were reported in 1907 as knowing how to read. There is, however, much drunkenness and much improvidence. The laborer is commonly held to his working place by debt, and yet the peonage of Chile is a condition probably less degraded than that of Mexico and other countries. The available figures for births point to a condition not materially different from that which has been observed elsewhere; a large proportion of all births are illegitimate, and the proportion rises in some centers to half or more.

17. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC

Argentina is, after Brazil, the most populous country of South America. In 1914, the date of the last census, 7,885,237 people were recorded as present and in 1918 8,416,485 were calculated to be present.

To a degree unapproached in any other country so far examined in this study the Argentine population is a white population. Over far the greater part of its extent, during the long years of Spanish conquest and dominion, there had never been any considerable number of Indians. By disease and by warfare their stock was decimated. Here and there they gave up their own civilization, accepted the Spanish language and Catholicism, and made their dwelling among the whites. In the course of three centuries many contracted unions with the whites and a mestizo stock was born. But so numerous were the Spaniards who continued to enter the country, even during the period of its history as a colony, that the people never became so infused with Indian blood as those in the other countries. The gaucho stock of the plains had a considerable Indian intermixture, but it is doubtful whether this stock has maintained the numbers it once had; the cowboy life as such is now mainly a tradition, and it is not known how far the stock has persisted outside that life. In the northwestern Provinces of the country, in Jujuy and elsewhere, there are still important communities of Indians. These are of much the same stock as the Indians of Bolivia; they are regarded as civilized. In the heavily forested Gran Chaco region wild Indians still maintain their abode; possibly as many as 100,000 are there. Far to the south of the country, in bleak Patagonia, surviving bands of Indians lead a wandering existence.

In some parts of Argentina negroes were introduced. Their numbers, however, were never large and their effect on the country's race stock, though still in evidence, has not been great.

Ever since the winning of independence a century ago, and especially since the middle of the nineteenth century, Argentina has attracted European immigrants on a scale unapproached by any other South American country. Between 1857 and 1914, 4,665,723 immigrants debarked. The principal classes of them and the numbers in these classes were as follows:

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The class most heavily represented, the Italians, included nearly half of all immigrants that came in these years. This stock originated principally in northern Italy, and especially in Piedmont, Venetia, and Lombardy; and was really more akin to the Swiss and the South German stocks than to the South Italian. The great development of Argentine agriculture is unqestionably due largely to the Italians.

So long have they been coming and so prolific have they been that one-third of the blood of Argentina is to-day Italian," and it is likely that the immigrants from all countries of Europe, including Italy, arrived during the last three-quarters of a century, account to-day for not less than three-fifths of the Argentine race stock. A good deal is known about the reproductivity of the foreign elements, which is substantially higher than that of the older stocks. The civilization of Argentina requires no apologies. It stands forth in sharp contrast with that of most countries of South America. The schools are good and illiteracy is slight. The institution of marriage rests upon a recognized legal basis. Rates of illegitimacy are much below those with which readers of this study are familiar, though in Argentina, too, they seem to be high wherever the mestizo element is large, as in the north. Political parties are more broadly based than elsewhere; participation in political life is more general. Government is stable; revolutions have long ceased to be a factor in every change of government.

18. URUGUAY

When the last census was taken, in 1908, Uruguay had a population of 1,042,686; it had in 1920 a population officially calculated at 1,494,953.

As in Argentina, the aborigines present when the Spanish came were too few to become permanently an important element in Uruguay. The Charrua Indians contested the Spanish advance and were not really put down for many decades. With them some mixture took place, so that to-day Indian features can be discerned in the population. In the main, however, the influence of the aborigines can be ignored. No pure-blooded Indians are left in the country.

At one time negroes came in considerable numbers and along the northern border of Uruguay many are still to be found; but they make up no large part of the inhabitants of the country.

Immigration has been important; relatively, it has been even more important than in Argentina. There is a substantial annual net increment of immigrants. Part of it is overflow from Argentina and Brazil and includes many natives from those countries; but another part, though smaller, comes from Europe, especially from Spain, Italy, and Germany. The importance of immigration is due largely to the circumstances that it has been a continuing factor for a great many years. Of the 133,643 Europeans living in Uruguay in 1908, 62,357 were Italians, chiefly from north Italy, 54,885 were spanish, and 8,341 were French; but of each of these nationalities a larger number had been recorded present when the census of 1889 was taken.

Like the Argentines, the people of Uruguay have an advanced civilization. At every point it appears to be superior to that which is usually found in the countries of Indian stock.

19. PARAGUAY

There has never been a true census taken in Paraguay. A calculation made in 1905 showed 631,347 inhabitants. For the accuracy of the calculation, however, not much can be claimed, nor can changes which have taken place since 1905 be measured to-day. Recently it has been common to claim 1,000,000 inhabitants, but this number is doubtless too high.

Despite frequent claims that the population is principally mestizo it can be described as principally Indian. Its basis is the very numerous tribe of Guarani

10 For a detailed examination of available evidence, chiefly statistical, pointing to this conclusion, see R. F. Foerster, the Italian Factor in the Argentine Race Stock, Quarterly Publications of the American Statistical Association, June, 1919, and the chapters on Argentina in Ibid, The Italian Emigration of our Times, Cambridge, 1919.

aborigines, found by the Spanish when they came and easily overcome by them. Race mixture followed the invasion, but the Spanish, finding fewer riches to attract them in Paraguay than in the other countries, never came in large enough numbers to constitute any considerable part of the whole population. An attenuated strain of white blood may be spread widely in Paraguay, but essentially the country is Indian-more Indian, probably, than any of the other republics of South America-and the Indian (Guarani) language is the language usually spoken.

Immigrants from other countries have been few. In all the years from 1908 to 1917 only 7,341 were recorded as arriving; of these 1,946 were Spanish, 1,401 were Italians, 1,280 were Argentines, and 1,074 were Germans. They have some economic importance, but as a race element are too few to weigh heavily. The Paraguay Indians and mestizos maintain a civilization of a simple sort, notable neither politically or economically. Of education they have very little. The statistics of births, such as they are, suggest a very high rate of illegitimacy. But Paraguayan social statistics are generally so imperfect that not much can be learned from them.

20. BRAZIL

(a) A large population with a relatively small Indian element. In 1920 the population of Brazil, according to the official census, stood at 30,635,605. This figure is higher by 40 or 50 per cent than the figures which have been commonly estimated in previous years and if correct it implies a rate of growth since 1900, when the population of 17,318,556 was found, far exceeding any previous intercensal rate. As no special reasons appear why so pronounced a growth should have taken place and as no reason appears for assuming that the figure for 1900 was unduly low, the inference may be allowed that the figure for 1920 is too high." When every allowance is made for overstatement, however, it is still beyond question that the population of Brazil is the largest of any political division of South America and even that it is nearly as great as that of all the remaining countries of South America combined.

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What the racial elements are does not appear from the recent census. everyone born within the country is a citizen, race lines are not usually drawn. Yet the principal race divisions have long been clear. The oldest element, but to-day the smallest, is the Indian. The country was very unequally populated with natives when the white conquerors came and the persistance of their stock has depended mainly upon whether the territories they inhabited were or were not desired by the white men. Most Indians of pure blood live to-day in the hot and moist valley of the Amazon which seems to have been a refuge area long before the Europeans came, the home of tribes marked off by various traits from the other tribes of South America. It is possible that the Indians of Brazil to-day number as many as two millions, but at that they would still be fewer than 10 per cent of the population. Some are wild and uncivilized; others like those in the rubber regions are docile and nonwarlike and have accepted servile employment with white masters.

Throughout its colonal history Brazil was governed from Portugal. Portuguese were the active colonizers of the country. Like the Spanish in other countries, they killed off the Indians in war or worked them hard as slaves, reserving their women for mates. The mestizo population which resulted from a mixture with the Indians never, however, assumed in Brazil the proportions it attained in some other countries. There was a concentration of Portuguese settlements in certain regions; in these regions, by backcrossing with the Portuguese stock, the mestizo element was in time absorbed; that is, the Indian element was attenuated beyond the point of easy recognition. Only in the north, in Paraguay, and along the banks of the Amazon is there to-day a readily recognizable mestizo population.

(b) The principal element is negroid.—If Brazil is not an Indian commonwealth, neither, however, is it a white commonwealth. From very early days, in order to supplement or to supplant the enforced yet incompetent labor of Indians, negro slaves were imported from Africa. They could be brought by a relatively short voyage and they were brought in larger numbers than to any other South American country. A century ago (in 1826) the negroes of Brazil were estimated to number more than 2,000,000 or about three times the

11 The Government in 1900 first gave out a figure of 22,315,000, but this was by common consent regarded as an exaggeration and was later superceded by the figure given in the text.

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