In 1916, the year in which the act became operative on all foreign ships, the tendency to pay the American wage immediately became apparent, as the following table illustrates:

Wages paid seamen and firemen on American and foreign vessels in 1916

1 Union scale. 293 ships. 3 92 ships. 4 Plus bonus of $9.45. 5 Plus bonus of $3.86.

The high cost of living and the increased perils of submarine warfare brought about substantial increases in the year 1917 for both seamen and firemen and resulted in their wages being equalized, first on American vessels and later, especially in 1918, on practically all foreign ships as well. In addition to the regular increase in wages, American shipowners paid bonuses ranging from 25 per cent to more than 100 per cent. Thus the American rate again led, but foreign rates soon adjusted themselves, so that at the end of 1918 the rates were practically equalized, with the exception of the French. This exception is due to the fact that the French merchant marine is controlled by the French Government and manned through the inscription maritime." The following table shows the continued process of equalization in 1917 and 1918: Wages paid seamen and firemen on American and foreign vessels in 1917 and 1918

The signing of the armistice brought about more definiteness and regularity in the wage rates. Bonuses had varied from month to month and even from ship to ship, depending upon the nature of the cargo and the length of the voyage, as well as the destination. In order to ascertain whether the equalization was artificial or only temporary, a survey was made between January 15 and February 15 of wages paid on foreign vessels leaving New York within

that time, the result of which was that the American rate seems to have become the standard rate.

The following ships paid the American rate of wages; that is, $75 for both seamen and firemen : American, Canadian, Danish, Dutch, Norwegian, Russian, Swedish. Belgian ships paid $70.56 for seamen and $73 for firemen. One Greek ship paid the flat rate of $70, while a Spanish ship paid $40. The French rate had not advanced beyond the rate fixed in May, 1918, namely, $30.88 for seamen and $36.68 for firemen. Lowest of all were the rates paid on Japanese ships. Although almost twice as high as those paid on the Pacific, the Atlantic rates were only 40 yen (about $20) for both seamen and firemen. A tabulation of these figures brings out the results more clearly.

Wages paid seamen and firemen on American and foreign vessels in spring

1 This rate has since been advanced. See pp. 133 and 134 of this issue of the Review 2 Including bonus.

3 Cf. also table on p. 146 of this issue of the Review.

A number of Scandinavian ships were paying their seamen and firemen 75 krona ($20.10) per month. A Norwegian captain who was interrogated explained that this was the rate paid by the Scandinavian ships in Scandinavian ports, but that bonuses had to be added to this, bringing the total pay up to 300 krona, or $80.40 in American money. Instead of paying the high bonuses they preferred paying the American flat rate of $75.

In view of the fact that the seamen's act was unable to influence French wages greatly on account of the "inscription maritime" exercised by the French Government, it was thought advisable to give the official French wage rate in detail.

A large part of the merchant marine of France was taken over by the French Government immediately after the outbreak of the war, and now the entire merchant marine is controlled by the Government. Whenever the pay on vessels that had not yet been requisitioned advanced, the Government immediately met the increase by establishing the same rate on the requisitioned ships, thereby assuring a uniform rate of pay. Thus to-day, as in the American merchant marine, a standard wage prevails throughout the French merchant marine.

A circular of the Ministry of Marine of January 8, 1916,1 promulgates the new scale of wages going into effect January 1, 1916. This scale, for the crew, is as follows:

Official French wage rate for crews, effective January 1, 1916

1 Comite Central des Armateurs de France, Circulaire No. 965.

2 Conversions into United States money are made on the base of 1 franc-19.3 cents.

Toward the end of 1916 the French shipowners granted another increase in wages, effective in November. 1916. A circular of the Minister of Marine1 immediately applied the new scale to the requisitioned ships. The scale of November 15, 1916, is as follows:

Official French wage rate for crews, effective November 15, 1916

On August 1, 1917, a new rate was put in operation on privately owned ships. On August 26, 1917, another circular of the Ministry of Marine establishing the new rate retroactive to August 1, 1917, on requisitioned ships was issued.

Official French wage rate for crews, effective August 1, 1917

It is important to note that beginning August 1, 1917, a uniform scale has been established throughout the entire French merchant marine. Theretofore wages in the Mediterranean and in the coastwise trade had been lower than in the ocean trade. On August 29, 1917, another agreement was entered into by the seamen and the ship companies to allow another increase of 15 francs ($2.90) the next January, which increase was promptly paid. But only a few months later new demands were made and submitted to the supreme court of arbitration for settlement. On June 6, 1918, the decision of the court was rendered granting the demands of the seamen. The new schedule was made retroactive to May 1, 1918, and is as follows:

An examination of the ship's articles of a number of French vessels clearing New York as recently as March, 1919, showed that the rate of May 1, 1918, was still in force. Though the French wages are not even one-half the prevailing American rate, the increase has, nevertheless, been about 100 per cent since the beginning of the war. The comparatively low rate of pay in the French merchant marine is probably due in a large measure to the semimilitary character

1 Comite Central des Armateurs de France, Circulaire No. 1054.

of French seamen. It is worthy of note, however, that the French delegates to the international seafarers' conference at London in February, 1919, supported the movement to establish a universal wage for seamen and firemen of $75.

WAGES PAID JAPANESE, CHINESE, LASCAR, AND MALAY SEAMEN AND FIREMEN

It has been demonstrated that the tendency toward equalization of seamen's wages in the merchant marines of the European nations and of the United States had to a great extent removed the unequal conditions under which American vessels were operating in the Atlantic. In the Pacific the change has been much less marked. The reasons are mainly racial differences and unequal standards of living of oriental crews as compared with white crews. While crews in the Atlantic usually consist of whites only and include besides Americans many of European nationalities, crews in the Pacific are largely oriental, and in the case of Japanese ships are composed entirely 'of Japanese. Some British vessels have mixed crews of white and Chinese or Lascars, but crews on Japanese ships are strictly Japanese.

It is hardly necessary to elaborate on the inequality of living standards between whites and orientals, be they Japanese, Chinese, or Lascars. We often hear of American standards being higher than European. This difference, such as it is, usually disappears when contact between the two is once established. The result is adjustment of standards and aspirations. No such contact is established between the whites and the orientals. Therefore no adjustment is likely to take place.

The importance of race and of living standards and its direct bearing on seamen's wages, particularly at this time, is borne out very strikingly by resolutions adopted at the International Seafarers' Conference in London last February (1919), where a universal seamen's basic wage was advocated, and an appeal was made to the shipping interests of the world to adopt the American wage standard, thereby eliminating the wage question from international competition.

The cleavage between European and American wage rates has practically been bridged over, but a chasm still separates Japanese, Chinese, Lascar, and Malay wages from all others. Of course, the war and the general increase of wages everywhere has not left oriental wages untouched. Although one Japanese steamship company in 1918 paid bonuses to its crews amounting to their earnings for the entitre year, yet their wages plus these bonuses brought their pay only near the French scale, which is about the lowest paid in Europe.

JAPANESE WAGES

Japanese wages are not so easily presented as European and American because of the peculiar and exaggerated subdivision of Japanese crews as far as pay is concerned. On American ships able seamen get $75, ordinary seamen $55, and deck boys $40 per month. In other words, you have three categories, the members of each getting $75, $55, or $40, respectively. A Japanese pay

roll, on the other hand, presents a scale such as this: 5 first sailors-4 at 25 yen,' at 24 yen; 6 second sailors-3 at 23 yen, 3 at 22 yen; 8 third sailors, 20 yen; and fourth sailors-4 at 19 yen, 3 at 17 yen, 1 at 15 yen; 3 deck boys, 5 yen.

An individual average wage could be figured out from the above scale. But the number of men in each category, as well as the amount paid to the various groups, are by no means the same on any two ships or on the same ship for two consecutive years. Furthermore, the data received were not always obtainable in such detailed form. If, therefore, in the following table, able seamen are quoted as receiving $8.25 to $10.25, this denoted the highest and the lowest wage paid to able seamen, implying that the scale is graduated between these two amounts. The following schedule illustrates the slow increase in the last five years as well as the low level of Japanese wages to-day:

11 yen=49.85 cents. Treasury Department Circular, No. 1, Oct. 1, 1919.

Monthly wages paid seamen and firemen on a Japanese vessel sailing from San Francisco, 1913, 1914, 1917, and 1918.

The hundred per cent bonus mentioned on page 142 was paid on this vessel in 1918. This means that the highest-paid seaman on this particular ship, which is one of the largest in the Pacific trade, received about $26, or less than American seamen received before the war. But this bonus was paid by the company during a very lucrative year on their own volition and not because of any agreement to do so.

The next table shows the lack of uniformity in the wage rates on four typical Japanese vessels and a comparison with the corresponding American rates for the same rating. Besides seamen and firemen other grades are added in order to make the comparison stronger. The rates are exclusive of any bonus that was paid during 1918.

Wage scale on four typical Japanese steamers in the Pacific trade compared with present-day (May, 1919) American rates

1 These rates have since been advanced. See pp. 133 to 135 of this issue of the Review

CHINESE WAGES

The nationalities hitherto mentioned in this report on seamen's wages, American, Belgian, British, Danish, French, Greek, Japanese, Dutch, Norwegian, Russian, Swedish, and Spanish, are all represented in American ports by the flag of the merchant marine of their respective countries. Three types of seamen presently to be discussed are not so represented. They are the Chinese, Lascar, and Malay crews.

Chinese seamen may be found on ships of various flags. The British, perhaps, employ them more than other nations, but they were found on American ships in the past and are at this time employed regularly by a Chinese-owned American corporation on the Pacific coast whose vessels fly the American flag. Before substituting its Chinese crews by whites after the passage of the seamen's act, the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. in 1915 was paying its Chinese, on an average, as follows: