Page images
PDF
EPUB
[blocks in formation]

SCIENCE IN THE TENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES.

BY F. KITTON.

[graphic]

CIENCE in the tenth century! the reader may be tempted to exclaim. What did they know of science in those dark ages? Compared with the knowledge of a charity-school boy of the present day, it must be admitted that scientific knowledge at that period was small indeed. It is popularly supposed that the clergyTM were desirous to keep what knowledge they possessed to themselves. This, however, is not the fact; the dense ignorance of the mass of the people, and the limited means of diffusing knowledge, rendered instruction of any kind both expensive and difficult. The specimens of popular science I am about to introduce to your notice are taken from MSS. that must have attained a certain amount of popularity. The first is a Manual of Astronomy, of which several copies are still extant. It is written in Anglo-Saxon. The name of the compiler is unknown, and it consists mainly of a free translation of a portion of Bede's De Natura Rerum. The extracts are literal translations from the Anglo-Saxon. The following extract is a specimen of the compiler's Anglo-Saxon :-"Ic wolde eac gyf ic dorste pluccian sum gehwæde andgyt of there bec the Beda se snolera lareow gesette & gaderode of manegra wisra lareowa bocum, be thæs geares ymbrenum fram anginne middan-eardes that nis to spelle ac elles to rædenne tham the hit licath.""I would eke, if I durst, pluck some little infor

This word had not at that period the restricted meaning it now bears; it simply meant one who could read aad write.

No. 85.

mation out of the book which Bede, the skilful master, formed and compiled out of the books of many wise masters concerning the courses of the year from the beginning of the world. This is not for a discourse, but otherwise to be read by those whom it pleases."

"Truly when the Almighty Creator created this world, He said, 'Let there be light!' and directly there was light..... On the second day God made heaven, which is called the firmament, which is visible and corporeal; and yet we may never see it, on account of its great elevation and the thickness of the clouds, and on account of the weakness of our eyes.

"The heavens incloses in its bosom all the world, and it ever turns about us swifter than any millwheel, all as deep under the earth as it is above. It is all round, and studded with stars. Truly the other heavens that are above and beneath are indescribable and unsearchable of men. There are, indeed, many more heavens, as the prophet said, 'the heaven of heavens.""

The compiler proceeds to describe the remaining days of creation in similar language. His description of the sixth day's creation is scarcely in accordance with the account in Genesis. He says that God made all kind of animals, and all cattle that go on four feet, and the two men Adam and Eve (& tha twegen menn Adam & Efan). "On the seventh day he ended his work, and the week was then completed. Now every day in this world is the result of the sun's light. Truly the sun goes by God's command between heaven and earth by day above, and by night under the earth, so far under the earth in the night-time as she rises above it in the day. She is ever running about the earth, and so light shines under the earth by night, as she does above our heads by day. The sun is very greatbroad she is, so the books tell, as the whole compass of the earth; but she appears to us very small,

*

The sun and moon in Anglo-Saxon and most of the northern languages are respectively female and male. B

because she is far from our sight. The sun is typical of our Saviour Christ, who is the Sun of Righteousness, as the prophet said, 'To the men who fear God, the Sun of Righteousness shall arise, and health is on her pinions.' The stars also, which seem to be very little, are very broad; and, on account of the great moisture which is between us, seem to our sight very small. Yet they could not send any light to our earth from the high heaven, if they were so small as they appear to our eyes.

"Truly the moon and all the stars receive light from the great sun, and none of them hath any rays but of the sun's rays; and though the sun shines under the earth at night, yet her light ascends on a part of the earth which lights up the stars above us, and when she rises she overcomes the light of all the stars and the moon also by her immense light. The moon, that waxes and wanes, is typical of the present generation in which we are. He is waxing by the children who are born, and waning by those who die. The bright stars are typical of the believers in God's congregation, who shine in good converse."

The compiler enters rather minutely into the subject of the position of the sun at various periods of the year. He then goes on to say that the night is divided into seven parts, from the sun's setting. "One of these parts is crepusculum; that is, evening's gloaming. The second is vesperum; that is, evening. The third is conticinium, when all things are silent in their rest. The fourth is intempestum; that is, midnight. The fifth is gallicinium; that is, cockcrowing. The sixth is matutinum, or Aurora; that is, dawning. The seventh is diliculum; that is, early morning, between dawn and sunrise. Weeks and months are known to men according to their understanding of them; and though we should describe them according to bookish meaning, it will seem to unlearned men too deep and uncommon."

Several pages are devoted to the various divisions of the calendar, and he also devotes some time in endeavouring to convince his readers that, although the moon is spoken of as new and old, and waxing and waning, still she really does not change, but that the different appearances are produced by the position of the sun. "No Christian shall divine anything by the moon; if he doth, his belief is nought. If the sun lights him from above, then he will stoop; if she lights him right athwart, then he is equally horned; if the sun lights him from below, then he inclines up. Because he always turns his back to the sun, he is so turned as the sun lights him.

[blocks in formation]

"Some men say that stars fall from heaven; but it is not stars that fall, but fire from the sky, which flies from the heavenly bodies as sparks do from fire. [Query, has the present President of the British Association cribbed this idea from this manual?] Certainly there are as many stars in the heavens as there were when God made them. They are also fixed in the firmament, and will not fall from hence while the world endures."

The atmosphere is described as one of the four elements in which we live, and in which every corporeal body dwells. "There are four elements in which all earthly bodies dwell, which are-aer, ignis, terra, aqua. Aer is atmosphere; ignis, fire; terra, earth; aqua, water. Air is a very thin corporeal element. It goes over the whole world, and extends up nearly to the moon. No man or any cattle has any breathing except by means of air. The breath that we blow out is not the soul, but is the air in which we live in this mortal life."

The treatise concludes with a short description of rain, hail, snow, and thunder, which he thus explains :—

"Thunder comes of heat and moisture. The atmosphere draws the moisture to it from below and the heat from above, and when they are gathered together, the heat and moisture within the atmosphere strive with each other with fearful noise, and the fire bursts out and injures the produce of the earth, if it be greater than the moisture. If the moisture be greater than the fire, then it does good. It is loud on account of the extent of the air, and dangerous on account of the shooting of the fire. Be this treatise here ended, God help my hands."

These brief extracts will suffice to show the state of physical science in the tenth century. Almost all his facts are, as we now know, mere assertions, and in many cases wholly devoid of truth; but from an observation made by our author, he appears to have had no mean opinion of his scientific knowledge. He very modestly remarks, that "he knows that it will seem incredible to unlearned men if we speak scientifically concerning the stars and concerning their courses."

The next treatise to which I will call your attention is written in Anglo-Norman by Philip de Thaun, The earliest existing MS. dates about the twelfth century. It is devoted almost entirely to an explanation of the calendar. He commences by stating his reasons for writing the book; among others, in order to enable priests to maintain the law (that is, the time when festivals and fasts ought to be observed); and he thus disposes of those critics who may happen to find fault with the work, or venture to doubt its usefulness:-"But whatever some may say who have got no sense, that I have laboured in vain when I made this book, they will swear, it may be by the virtues of heaven, that I never knew how to rhyme or set out

an argument, but I care not what a fool says; I do not repent. There are ill speakers enough when there are few encomiasts; men who blame, and none who amend. I never invented or laboured at it for fools; know that it is villany, and I hold it folly that a man should judge if he knows not how to plead, or to blame what he cannot amend. So the villain said in reproof to the drunkard: "The worst wheel cries in the cart.' 'Very hard is the apple which never ripens.""

You will perceive that the author, like Sancho Panza, has a liking for proverbs, and he introduces them at every opportunity. One or two short extracts will suffice to give you an idea of the scientific value of this treatise :-"It is called a week which is formed of seven days. Originally God invented it by six days that he worked; on the seventh he reposed. This he called a week. And so it is written in the law which we read: six days we ought to work, and rest the seventh, for the love of the Lord, who kept this day. And now we will show why the days are named. The Pagans invented the names which they gave to the days. The first, which we call Sunday, they gave to the sun, and gave his name to it because he enlightened the world and drove away night; and it pleased God that it should be so called, for it was his day, and he chose to have it. The second day they gave and assigned to the moon, for the world which she enlightened when the sun is set. The other days they gave to the gods whom they loved. They worshipped four. One they called Mars; he was a bold and valiant knight; to his honour they assigned the third day (Marsdi); we call it Tuesday, according to their practice." In similar style he treats of the months, the signs of the zodiac, the festivals and fasts of the Church.

The third treatise is by the same author, and is called "The Bestiary, or Book of Beasts," and is probably founded on some Latin treatises. The writings of Philip de Thaun belonged to a period of our history when Anglo-Norman was the common language among respectable classes of society. The author commences with an allusion to the Queen of England. "Philip de Thaun into the French language has translated "The Bestiary' a book of science for the honour of a jewel, who is a very handsome woman: Alice she is named, a Queen she is crowned, Queen she is of England; may her soul never have trouble! In Hebrew, in truth, Alice means praise of God. I will compose a book; may God be its commencement. What is in Greek leun, has in French the name of king. The lion in many ways rules over many beasts; therefore is the lion king. Now, you shall hear how. He has a frightful face, the neck great and hairy; he has the breast before square, hardy, and pugnacious; his shape behind is slender, his tail of large fashion, and he has flat legs, and haired down to

the feet: he has the feet large and cloven, the claws long and curved. When he is hungry or ill-disposed he devours animals without discrimination, as he does the ass, which resists and brays. Now, hear, without doubt, the signification of this."

in

A naturalist of the present day would probably be satisfied with giving a specific description of the animal he was treating upon; or, if he aimed at writing a popular book, would give some of its habits; but our author does not let his readers off quite so easily. He was evidently no materialist, for he finds a spiritual significance in all the animals he describes. The lion, he says, signifies the Son of Mary. "He is king of all people, without any gainsay. He is powerful by nature over every creature, and fierce appearance; and with fierce look he will appear to the Jews when he shall judge them, because they made themselves guilty when they hanged him on the cross, and therefore they have merited to have no king over them. The square breast shows strength of the Deity. The shape which he has behind, of very slender make, shows humanity, which he had with the Deity. By the tail is indicated justice, which is placed over us. By the leg, which is flat, he shows that God was constrained, and it was convenable that he should give himself up for us. By the foot, which is cloven, is demonstrance of God, who will clasp the world, and will hold it in his fist. By the claws is meant vengeance upon the Jews. By the ass we understand the Jews very rightly; the ass is foolish by nature, as the Scriptures say; he will turn from his way, if one does not drag him entirely to it. Just such a nature the Jews have, who are fools; they will never believe in God unless they do it by force; they will never be converted unless God have mercy upon them."

(I suspect the Society for the Propagation of Christianity among the Jews have not understood this important fact, and consequently they are not so successful as our author would have been if such a society had existed in his day, and he had been a member of it.)

Our naturalist proceeds to describe an animal which, by some unaccountable oversight, is not mentioned by Buffon, Cuvier, or Owen. He says: "Monoceros is a beast which has one horn on his head; therefore it is so named. It has the form of a goat. It is caught by means of a virgin. When a man intends to take and ensnare it, he goes to a forest where is its repair. There he places a virgin with her breasts uncovered, and by its smell the Monoceros perceives it. Then it comes to the virgin and kisses her breast, falls asleep on her lap, and so comes to its death. The man arrives immediately and kills it in its sleep, or takes it alive and does as he likes with it. It signifies much. I will not need to tell you Monoceros is Greek: it means one horn. A beast of such description signifies

Jesus Christ; one God he is and shall be, and was and will continue so. He placed himself in the virgin, and took flesh for man's sake; and for virginity to show chastity; to a virgin he appeared, and a virgin conceived him; a virgin she is, and will be, and remain always."

Fig. 1. Seal of Margaret, Queen of Scotland, on a letter to her brother, Henry the Eighth, dated April 11, 1513. (Cottonian Library.)

I will not try your patience any further with the signification of the various animals our author describes. I would, however, call your attention to one or two forms not known to modern naturalists.

"Thus saith Solomon of the ant rightly, and of the idle man who waits for fine weather: 'Be not slothful; look at the ant.'

"This say writings-that the ant has three natures. It has such a nature when it issues from its hole orderly in the morning right on its way, and when it has found grain of all sorts of corn it knows well which is wheat by the smell alone; it does not care for grain of barley, but if it is a grain of wheat it takes it in with its mouth, carries it to its nest, and is supported in the winter.

"Also, Isidore speaks of another ant. In Ethiopia there is a river, there the grain of gold is produced in it, which they collect with their feet, and defend it from the people. People dare not approach them to take or touch it. Whom the ants bite, they die immediately; no one dares approach these; the ants are so fierce if any one will have some of that gold to make his treasure of. By a stratagem they contrive, they have great plenty of the gold. They keep without food mares which have newly colted. Then on the third day, as you will find, a little basket on the backs of the mares: they bind it firmly. They make them pass the river to bring gold, and draw them to a meadow which has plenty of grass. The ants are there where the mares go. They make their cells in the basket, and load the

mares. When they are satisfied, charged, and filled, they repair back behind them. They run to the colts, where they are neighing, which the men have attached by the river. Thus, truly, that people get gold. There is also a beast which is master of the ant. It is the formicaleon. It is the lion of ants; whence it is thus named. It is a very little beast. It puts itself in the dust where the ant goes, and does it great outrage. But of this matter I will no more discourse, because I will now begin to treat of another."

Time will not allow of further examples of this singular composition; but a short account of the remainder of the treatise may be of interest. Many of the forms are fabulous. Thus he speaks of an animal called Osida: "It has two feet of a camel and two wings of a bird (perhaps an ostrich). And of a Siren, that is, like a woman to the waist, with the feet of a falcon, and the tail of a fish."

Among the birds described is of course a Phoenix. After treating of birds he says: "Now ends this discourse, and we will speak of stones." The following is a specimen of his mineralogical knowledge.

"There are twelve stones in this world which have great signification, which I will not omit briefly to tell you.

"Red Jasper shows love, open, weakness, sweet

[graphic]

ness.

66

[ocr errors]

Sapphire shows faith in God.

Chalcedony shows that we shall be neighbours with God.

Smaragdus shows faith which the Christian has in him.

"Sardonyx shows chastity and humility. "Sardius shows sorrow which the saints had on earth for God's love.

"Chrysolite, the celestial happiness which they had with the terrestrial life."

And so on with the beryl, topaz, chrysoprassus, jacinth, and amethyst. He also speaks of the Unio, or pearl, as a stone, and says that it represents eight good things,-life, youth, holiness, love, repose, joy, peace, light. "Unio will give that without end. May Saint Mary give us these eight gifts of life, and may God give his majesty to her, for whom this book is made; and may all those who will pray for that and say a Paternoster for it, have the merit of Saint John; may they be in the bosom of holy Abraham. Unio is the Father and Son; Unio is the Holy Ghost; Unio is beginning; Unio is end; Unio is Alpha and Omega. Benedicamus Domino.

"I have shown of three kinds of beasts, of birds, and of stones, that of each of these there is a king. which shows that God is king; in person he is trinity, and one only in divinity. May this God be our aid, and the Virgin Saint Mary. May this God give us true sense and life everlasting. Amen."

With these pious ejaculations the learned naturalist concludes his treatise, and although his

« PreviousContinue »