data were used for a specific purpose. However, they said, if we will put somebody aboard to work with them, it possibly could be made available; but the information they had was not useful at the present time. We will continue to work with them, and if they have any information that would be useful in the Continental Shelf surveys for our charts, we will try and use it.

Captain BAUER. How far behind your boat charts are your produced charts of the Continental Shelf? How many years?

Admiral KARO. The normal cycle, when we complete the surveys through the processing is from 1 to 2 years. However, we are automating our processes so that we hope that will be shortened down to a few months.

Captain BAUER. Now, with respect to the ocean surveys, where does this differ from what Hydrographic Office of the Navy's Oceanographic Office has been doing?

Dr. HOLLOMON. The deep ocean surveys that we are doing are systematic surveys with close spacing and we are using this opportunity to determine as much of the geophysical parameters of the ocean and the earth as we pass over it as can be made with one pass.

Captain BAUER. Well, is not the Navy Oceanographic Office doing the same thing?

Dr. HOLLOMON. Through the ICO, we coordinate our areas of operation with the Navy, so that the area we have picked out where we are now operating does not conflict with what the Navy is doing; in fact, it complements the work that they are doing.

Capatin BAUER. Have you any plan for the surveys of the oceans of the world?

Dr. HOLLOMON. Yes, sir.

Captain BAUER. Do you have a copy available for us?

Dr. HOLLOMON. Yes, sir.

Mr. LENNON. You would have a copy for the use of the committee, sir?

Dr. HOLLOMON. Yes: I have just prepared a copy for the record. (The statement referred to follows:)

1. Requirements.-The Coast and Geodetic Survey's present program in ocean surveys is the outgrowth of many years of dreaming and urging that such a program be undertaken, it is an outgrowth of the recommendations contained in the reports of three generations of National Academy of Sciences Committees on Oceanography (1927, 1952, and 1959), of the generalized plan prepared by the Ocean Surveys Advisory Panel of the Interagency Committee on Oceanography. of the Operations Research Study of the Ocean Survey Program prepared by Operations Research Inc., and finally it is the outgrowth also of 4 years of actual ocean survey experience aboard the USCGS ship Pioneer. In its present form the ocean survey program of the Coast and Geodetic Survey reflects the blending of these many recommendations and requirements into one workable program put together by the organization that will actually carry out the work.

The need for systematic surveys of the sea has been extremely well documented over the years: Some of these documents are:

on

1899: Resolution of the Conference of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Copenhagen, translated in hearings of Subcommittee Oceanography, House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee. 87th Congress, 2d session, February 28, March 1 and 2, 1962, pages 13-18.

1924-5: Extensive documentation to justify the proposed Naval Oceanographic Expedition to be called the Maury-United States Naval Oceanographic Research (See the Literary Digest, Sept. 19, 1925, Journal of Geology vol. 32, No. 8. 1924 editorial, pp. 690-695).

1931: "Oceanography," Henry B. Bigelow, Houghton Mifflin Co.

1937: "International Aspects of Oceanography," T. Wayland Vaughn et al., National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.

1952: "Oceanography 1951," National Academy of Sciences Committee on Oceanography Report, NAS-NRC Pub. 208, Washington, D.C.

1959: "Oceanography 1960-70," chapter 9, Ocean-Wide Surveys, National Academy of Sciences Committee on Oceanography Report, NAS-NRC, Washington, D.C.

1963: "National Plan for Ocean Surveys," Interagency Committee on Oceanography, ICO Pamphlet No. 7, Washington, D.C.

1963: "The Global Sea," Harris B. Stewart, Jr., D. Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J.

1963: "Oceanography, The Ten Years Ahead," Interagency Committee on Oceanography, ICO Pamphlet No. 10, Washington, D.C.

1964: "General Scientific Framework for World Ocean Studies" (draft) Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO, Paris.

1965: "User Requirements and National Ocean Survey Program Planning," H. Nisselson, Operations Research, Inc., Technical Report No. 311, one of a series of reports on the national ocean survey program made to the Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Some of the requirements for ocean surveys will be summarized but the detailed justifications and spelling out of the requirements are contained in the documentation listed above. The most important material resources of the sea today and probably for many years to come are the animals and plants. In Europe and North America only 5 to 20 percent of the animal protein in human diet comes from the sea, and in many other nations this is considerably larger and forms an indispensable part of the human diet. The world's ocean fisheries increased from 25 to 40 million metric tons between 1955 and 1962, and this rate of increase (about 7 percent each year) will be maintained or even increased in the near future. Fishmeal for feeding poultry and livestock was produced at the rate of about 4 million tons in 1955 and was up to nearly 10 million tons in 1961. The human population of earth took about 10,000 years to reach a total of 1 billion persons by the year 1830. Yet this figure was doubled between 1830 and 1930, a mere 100 years. In the 35 years since 1930 we have added still another billion. At this rate there will be 6 billion persons on earth by the year 2000, and in a mere 600 years there will be only 1 square yard of living space per person. The growth rate of the human population demands that new food sources be developed. The present growth rates of oceanic fisheries cannot be maintained for many more years unless oceanic investigations on a worldwide scale are carried out to ascertain (1) the ocean conditions that bring about economically catchable fish concentrations, (2) the locations and sizes of fish populations and how these vary with variations in the oceanographic conditions, and (3) those aspects of fish behavior that can be exploited to reduce the costs of catching fish.

Of the utmost importance is the determination of the large-scale changes in the physical characteristics of the waters of the sea and the causes for them. The correlation of such changes with changes in the fish catch is known to be high where such environmental changes have actually been measured, but these instances are presently few. The tremendous anchovy fishery off the west coast of South America, for example, suffers almost total destruction with the occurrence of the warm surface water called el niño covering the normally cooler upwelled water which contains a rich abundance of fish. Mass mortalities of both fish and the guano birds that feed on them are common, yet the causes for el niño are still unknown. The ocean survey program includes the systematic measurement of the water characteristics which the fisheries oceanographers need to obtain the more complete picture of the interrelationship of the fish and his environment that is required for an increased catch. The fisherman must be able to anticipate major changes in the oceanic environment to improve his efficiency and lower his costs per ton. Needed here is the regular periodic production of maps of the world ocean that show existing conditions and point out anomalies and comparisons with earlier synoptic maps. Similarly, the environmental conditions in especially important fishing grounds should be

monitored on a continuous basis. Provisions for such observations are also made in the ocean survey program.

Before any resource can be exploited, it must first be mapped, and this is as true at sea as it is on the land. Man has been at the task of mapping his land areas for hundreds of years, and accurate maps for many varied purposes are now available. Of the ocean, however, maps of even moderate accuracy are available for only its shallow edges. We know only the grossest features of the better than 90 percent of the sea that lies seaward of our Continental Shelves. These areas, as well as the Continental Shelf, must be mapped not only for bottom topography but for gravity and magnetics, for the distribution of sediments, and for the subbottom structures. These measurements and others such as meteorological measurements and measurements of the characteristics of the surface waters can be made from a ship underway without necessitating steps. The costs of the ship time could be justified for most of these measurements even if only one of these characteristics were being measured. Gravity measurements at sea, for example, have indeed done just that on the historic work of the Dutch submarine K-XIII in the East Indies, Vening Meinesz' later work in the same area, and the U.S. submarines S-21 and S-48 in the Caribbean Sea. Similarly the magnetic work of the nonmagnetic ship Carnegic is well known. Today's technology enables the modern oceanographer to do both gravity and magnetic observations on a continuous basis while steaming at 14 to 16 knots and providing a detailed topographic section of the sea bottom at the same time. It is these advances in instrumentation that makes it possible to do so much at one time on each ship and make the running of a full-scale ocean survey program considerably more feasible than would have been possible as little as 15 years ago. The maps that such a survey program will produce will be the base maps for all future exploration and exploitation of our global sea. They will also pinpoint those areas where research vessels can return to get the detailed data that will be needed to answer specific research questions which the basic surveys will raise.

Marine mineral resources will need surveys for their discovery and maps for their exploitation. Manganese nodules are known to exist in parts of the sea and probably exist in those many areas which have never been traversed by a research or survey ship. These nodules run 25 to 30 percent manganese and as much as 1 percent cobalt, copper, or nickel. Actually, these deposits are forming now at a rate faster than the present rate of world consumption of these metals, and within a few years as our supplies on land diminish, these may be economically recoverable. Present knowledge of the distribution of these nodules is not sufficient as yet to justify large industrial investment, since the known samples have been isolated grab samples or were seen in deep-sea photographs. Their distribution must be determined by a systematic survey. Phosphorite nodules are found in shollower waters, and these low-grade ores have been estimated to bring $12 per ton delivered on the dock. Oil, gas, and sulfur are already produced from the Continental Shelves, and recent surveys in the Sigsbee Deep in the Gulf of Mexico suggest that salt domes favorable as traps for oil exist there. Diamond-bearing gravels off Africa are being exploited at the rate of about $15,000 per day. Gold-bearing sands have recently been discovered off Nome and Juneau. tin is being dredged from the sea floor off the Malay Peninsula, magnetite sands are being mined from the sea floor off Japan for their iron content, and even plain sand is now required for U.S. beaches to such a degree that surveys of the offshore areas have been carried out just to try to locate sands for beach replenishment. It has been estimated in a report prepared for UNESCO that several million dollars a year in geological and minerological research and surveys directed specifically toward the location of mineral deposits on the Continental Shelves could generate new industry of gross produet of at least $50 million a year within a decade.

Studies of the shape of the earth and the tieing of remote islands into the major geodetic nets require gravity data at sea. The world magnetic charts for navigation require magnetic data at sea. Charts of the sea for the marine navigator require hydrographic surveys at sea. Resource exploitation-as well as discovery-requires maps of the seas. Long-range weather prediction needs synoptic meterological data at sea as well as oceanographic data for a better understanding of the air-sea interaction mechanism. Commerce requires maps. National defense requires all of these data. Pollution control needs to know of the currents and rates of dispersion of pollutants. Basic research which provides the pool of basic knowledge on which we must draw for our future ap

plications requires the basic data from the ocean survey program not only to help answer some present questions but also to help formulate new and challenging questions to ask of the ocean. The requirements of the various agencies of the Federal Government for the data to be developed by the ocean survey subprogram are presented in general terms in ICO publication 7, and in more specific terms in the ORI reports (see especially ORI Technical Report No. 311, "User Requirements and National Ocean Survey Planning"). In actuality, however, it is difficult to justify this ocean survey program solely in terms of present needs. It is primarily an exploration program and should be understood as such. As an exploration program, it should not and does not require specific justifications in terms of present-day data needs. It is, for example, almost impossible to establish cost-benefit ratios for such a program, for many, if not most, of the benefits will be realized only after the program is well underway. It would be unfortunate if the United States were to undertake only those programs for which there were immediate needs; we must also think of the long term needs and be perfectly willing to provide some answers for which the questions have yet to be formulated.

2. Objectives. To meet these requirements, the objective of the ocean survey program is to provide within a reasonable amount of time accurate base maps of the topography of the sea floor, of its geophysical and geological characteristics, and to provide for the systematic collection, compilation, and presentation of statistically significant data on the time-dependent variables in the water of the sea and in the atmosphere above it. One characteristic of land mapping is that it is never completed. So too the mapping of the sea will probably never be completely done to the satisfaction of all possible requirements in the most minute of detail. However, the magnitude of the task to provide base maps of the ocean can be fairly well calculated as a function of the distance between lines of underway operations and the number of oceanographic stations to be occupied. Assuming 10 nautical miles between lines and a total of 10,000 stations, the requirement is for 295 ship-years. The time to accomplish this task thus becomes merely a function of how many ships can be devoted to the task at one time. A mathematical model has been prepared whereby the various input parameters can be varied to determine just how long such a survey might take at any given line spacing, or number of stations, or length of time on station, speed of the ships, numbers of ships, even anticipated survey limitations due to weather. This model will prove an invaluable tool as the work is planned in detail.

The immediate end product of the program will be charts and data listings. A secondary end product will be interpretive papers to be published following detailed analysis of the processed and published data.

3. Courses of action.-When the ocean survey program was originally developed by the Interagency Committee on Oceanography, it was anticipated that the Navy would carry out one-half of the effort. This was also the specific recommendation of the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Oceanography. However, as the actual program planning began to take place, the Navy quite specifically stated that their ships and manpower were totally committed to urgent military requirements that precluded them taking any part in a national ocean survey program,. The Weather Bureau and the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries have played active roles in the meteorological and biological phases of the program to date and will continue to do so. Similarly, the Geological Survey has also had people aboard the Pioneer in the limited work to date, and the Smithsonian Institution will assist in the sorting and storage of both biological and geological samples when the analyses and research work on them are completed. However, the major portion of the program, including all of the ship operations at sea, must by default become the responsibility solely of the Coast and Geodetic Survey.

As T. Wayland Vaughn stated in the preface of the 1937 report of the NAS Committee on Oceanography, "It is obvious that any comprehensive systematic investigation of the oceans must be in large measure an international enterprise." The same sentiment was echoed in the NASCO report of 1959, and plans for such international cooperation have been outlined in ICO Pamphlet No. 7, National Plan for Ocean Surveys (pp. 29–31).

However, the Coast and Geodetic Survey will not delay its own survey efforts pending the completion of the international cooperative plan. The task is so large-295 ship-years-that the international plan will hopefully have been worked out long before the United States completes even the 30 percent that

corresponds to our portion of the support of UNESCO and of other specialized intergovernmental organizations. The ocean survey program of the Coast and Geodetic Survey is in fact the U.S. program of ocean surveys, and we will modify the program as necessary to take into account any commitments made by the Government in support of the international effort to achieve these same goals. In the meantime, the Coast and Geodetic Survey will pursue the program as though it alone were to be the sole agency to accomplish the task.

The goals can be achieved only by providing 295 ship-years of survey work at sea plus the manpower and shore facilities to process, analyze, publish, and distribute the information. There are, however, alternative means for accomplishing this. One ship could work for 295 years, but this is tacitly ridiculous in the light of the urgency for the surveys. The present plan calls for a total of nine ships for the ocean survey program programed as shown in table I. Assuming that each ship will put in the full season on this program and that the first full year of operations for each ship is the year following its planned delivery date, then the United States 30 percent of the world ocean survey can be accomplished by 1979, the total program by the year 2002. This is detailed in table II. Provision can be made, however, for contracting out part of the work, should the urgency of completing the task require more facilities than the Coast and Geodetic Survey could provide in time.

TABLE I.—Coast and Geodetic Survey oceanographic shipbuilding program

I

I.

la

Ia

Ia

III.

Ia

Ia.

Ia..

Ship class

1 Replacement for Pioneer.

1966.

1967

1968.

1969

1970.

TABLE II.--Ship-years available for ocean survey program

19 (et seq.).

2 30 percent of the total job.

3 This assumes a 1-for-1 replacement as ships become obsolescent. Total job.

The calculation of 295 ship-years is based on underway surveys at 10-nauticalmile spacing plus 10.000 oceanographic stations. One alternative is that at least part of the information to be gained from the station observations can be obtained at less cost per unit of data and the information would be more meaningful if oceanographic buoys were used. This phase is still in the very early stages, and the worth of buoy observations still needs to be evaluated. The plan, therefore, calls for an early evaluation of buoys as oceanographic data collectors. The major problem with buoys is that the oceanographers themselves are not yet sure of just what the range and spectrum of variations are that exist in the ocean. The plan is to set out a small network of buoys to measure the whole range of variables on a very small scale as a starter. Once this network has determined what is there to be measured and how the various parameters vary