great speed in Xen. Anab.' Lib. 1. is well known. Gesenius refers to a picture of the wild ass of Persia in Ker Porter's Travels in Georgia and Persia,' Vol. I. p. 459, and says, that a living specimen which he saw in the London Zoological Gardens in 1835 exactly corresponded with this picture ('Thes.' P. 1123).

bis bana will be against every man, &c.] or "upon every man," a common phrase for violence and injury (cp. Gen. xxxvii. 27; Exod. ix. 3; Deut. ii. 16; Josh. ii. 19; 1 S. xviii. 17, 21, xxiv. 13, 14). The violent character and lawless life of the Bedouin descendants of Ishmael

from the first till this day is exactly described in these words.

in the presence of all his brethren] Lit. "in front" or "before the face of all his brethren." This may point to that constant attitude of the Bedouin Arabs, living every where in close proximity to their kindred races, hovering round them, but never mingling with them: or, we may render "to the east of all his brethren," a translation adopted by Rosenm., Gesen., Tuch, Knobel, Delitzsch, &c. The Arabs are called in Job i. 3, "the children of the east," and in some passages of Scripture the phrase "in the presence of," is explained to mean "eastward of" (see Numb. xxi. 11; Josh. xv. 8; Zech. xiv. 4); the rationale of this being, that when a man looked toward the sunrise, the east was before him.

13. Thou God seest me: for she said, Have I also here looked after him that seeth me?] Thou art a God of seeing, for have I also seen here after seeing? The Authorized Version has nearly followed the rendering of the LXX. and Vulg., which is inadmissible. The meaning of the words is probably, "Thou art a God that seest all things," (or perhaps "that revealest Thyself in visions"); "and am I yet living and seeing, after seeing God?" (cp. Judg. xiii. 21). So apparently Onkelos; and this rendering is adopted by Rosenm., Gesen., Tuch, Kalisch, De

litzsch, and most moderns. The name of God throughout this chapter is JEHOVAH, except when Hagar the Egyptian speaks; yet the God of vision who reveals Himself to her is carefully identified with the JEHOVAH of Abraham,

14. Beer-lahai-roi] "The well of life of vision," i.e. where life remained after vision of God. (See Ges. 'Thes.' p. 175.) This seems to be the meaning of the name according to the etymology derived from the last verse, though others render it "the well of the living One (ie. the living God) of vision."

between Kadesh and Bered] On the site of Kadesh and its uncertainty see on ch. xiv. 7. The uncertainty of the site of Bered is still greater, and therefore the difficulty of arriving at the exact position of Beer-lahai-roi is almost insuperable. Mr Rowlands (in Williams' Holy City,' 1. 465) thinks that he has discovered its site at a place called Moilahhi, about 10 hours south of Ruheibeh, in the road from Beersheba to Shur, or Jebel-es-sur, a mountain range running north and south in the longitude of Suez.

CHAP. XVII. 1. And when Abram was ninety years old and nine] i.e. just thirteen years after the events related in the last chapter, compare v. 25, where Ishmael is said to be now thirteen years old.

the Almighty God] El-Shaddai. The word Shaddai, translated by most versions "mighty," or "Almighty," is generally thought (by Gesen., Rosenm., Lee, &c. &c.) to be a plural of excellence (in this respect like Elohim), derived from the root Shadad, the primary meaning of which appears to have been "to be strong," "to act strongly," though more commonly used in the sense of "to destroy, to devastate." The later Greek versions Aq., Sym., Theod., render ikavòs, “sufficient," "all-sufficient." So Theodoret, Hesych., Saad. Accordingly, Rashi and some of the Jewish writers consider it to be compounded of two words, signifying" who is sufficient?". the improbability

+ Heb. multitude of nations.

• Rom. 4. 17.

2 And I will make my covenant between me and thee, and will multiply thee exceedingly.

3 And Abram fell on his face: and God talked with him, saying,

4 As for me, behold, my covenant is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations.

5 Neither shall thy name any more be called Abram, but thy name shall be Abraham; for a father of many nations have I made thee.

6 And I will make thee exceeding fruitful, and I will make nations of thee, and kings shall come out of thee.

7 And I will establish my covenant between me and thee and thy seed after thee in their generations for an everlasting covenant, to be a God unto thee, and to thy seed after thee.

8 And I will give unto thee, and to

of which derivation is very great. The title, or character, El-Shaddai, is said, Exod. vi. 2, 3, to have been that by which God was revealed to the patriarchs, not then, at least in its full meaning, by the name JEHOVAH; and it is noted as occurring in those passages which the German critics call Elohistic. In this very verse, however, we read it in immediate juxtaposition with the name JEHOVAH, and in Ruth i. 20, 21, we find the identification of JEHOVAH with Shaddai. Probably, like Elohim, and Adonai, we may consider El-Shaddai (a title known to Balaam, Num. xxiv. 4, 16, and constantly used in Job), to have been one of the more general world-wide titles of the Most High, whilst JEHOVAH was rather the name by which His own chosen people knew and acknowledged Him. The title, which especially points to power, seems most appropriate when a promise is made, which seems even to Abram and Sarai to be wellnigh impossible of fulfilment.

2. I will make my covenant] The word for "make" is different from that used in xv. 18. There God is said to have "cut" a covenant with Abram by sacrifice, which phrase has probably special reference to the sacrifice and also to the two parties who made the covenant by sacrifice (see on xv. 9). Here He says, "I will give my covenant between Me and thee." The freedom of the covenant of promise is expressed in this latter phrase. It was a gift from a superior, rather than a bargain between equals; and as it was accompanied by the rite of circumcision, it was typical of the freedom of that covenant made

thy seed after thee, the land 'wherein + Heb. thou art a stranger, all the land of journings. Canaan, for an everlasting possession; and I will be their God.

9 And God said unto Abraham, Thou shalt keep my covenant therefore, thou, and thy seed after thee in their generations.

10 This is my covenant, which ye shall keep, between me and you and thy seed after thee; 'Every man child Acts 7. 8. among you shall be circumcised.

11 And ye shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin; and it shall be a token of the covenant betwixt me & Acts 7. 8. and you.

Rom. 4. 11.

a son of Lev. 12. Luke 2.21. John 7. 22.

eight days.

12 And he that is 'eight days old + Heb. shall be circumcised among you, every man child in your generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any stranger, which is not of thy seed.

afterwards to Christians in Christ, and sealed to them in the sacred rite of baptism.

4. of many nations] of a multitude of nations; as in margin.

5. Abraham] i.e. "father of a multitude." He was originally Ab-ram, "exalted father." Now he becomes Ab-raham, "father of a multitude;" raham, in Arabic, being a vast number, a great multitude. Abraham was literally the ancestor of the twelve tribes of Israel, of the Ishmaelites, of the descendants of Keturah and of the Edomites; but spiritually he is the father of all the faithful, who by faith in Christ are "Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise" (Gal. iii. 29). It has been very generally believed that the letter H here introduced into the names both of Abraham and Sarah is one of the two radical letters of the name JEHOVAH (as the other radical 7 was introduced into the name Joshua), whereby the owner of the name is doubly consecrated and bound in covenant to the LORD (see Delitzsch, in loc.). The custom of giving the name at the time of circumcision (Luke i. 59) probably originated from the change of Abraham's name having been made when that rite was first instituted.

10. This is my covenant] ie, the sign, token and bond of the covenant.

12. eight days old] Seven days, a sacred number, were to pass over the child before he was so consecrated to God's service. There was a significance in the number 7, and there was a reason for the delay that the child might grow strong enough to bear the operation.

13 He that is born in thy house, and he that is bought with thy money, must needs be circumcised: and my covenant shall be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant.

14 And the uncircumcised man child whose flesh of his foreskin is not circumcised, that soul shall be cut off from his people; he hath broken my

covenant.

15 ¶ And God said unto Abraham, As for Sarai thy wife, thou shalt not call her name Sarai, but Sarah shall her name be.

13. He that is born in thy house, &c.] "Moses has nowhere given any command, nor even so much as an exhortation, inculcating the duty of circumcision upon any person not a descendant, or a slave of Abraham, or of his descendants, unless he wished to partake of the passover.... In none of the historical books of the Old Testament do we find the smallest trace of circumcision as necessary to the salvation of foreigners, who acknowledge the true God, or requisite even to the confession of their faith: no not so much as in the detailed story of Naaman (2 K. v.); in which indeed every circumstance indicates that the circumcision of that illustrious personage can never be supposed" (Michaelis, 'Laws of Moses,' Bk. IV. Art. 184). There is a marked distinction in this between circumcision and baptism. Judaism was intended to be the religion of a peculiar isolated people. Its rites therefore were for them alone. Christianity is for the whole human race; the Church is to be catholic; baptism to be administered to all that will believe.

14. that soul shall be cut off from his people] The rabbinical writers very generally understand that the excision should be by Divine judgment. Christian interpreters have mostly understood the infliction of death by the hand of the magistrate: some (Cleric. and Michael. in loc.) either exile or excommunication. The latter opinion was afterwards retracted by Michaelis, and it is pretty certain that death in some form is intended (see Gesen. 'Thes.' p. 718).

15. thou shalt not call her name Sarai, but Sarah shall her name be] There is but little doubt that Sarah signifies" Princess," in allusion probably to the princely race which was to spring from her, though Ikenius, followed by Rosenmüller, argues in favour of a meaning to be derived from the Arabic root Saraa, signifying, "to have a numerous progeny." As to the original name Sarai, the older interpreters generally understood it to

16 And I will bless her, and give thee a son also of her: yea, I will bless her, and she shall be a mother of na- Heb. tions; kings of people shall be of become her.

17 Then Abraham fell upon his face, and laughed, and said in his heart, Shall a child be born unto him that is an hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear?

18 And Abraham said unto God, Ọ that Ishmael might live before thee!

signify "my princess:" the change to Sarah indicating that she was no longer the princess of a single race, but rather that all the families of the earth should have an interest in her (Jerome, 'Qu. Hebr.' p. 522); many think that Sarai means simply "noble, royal," whilst Sarah more definitely means princess;" which, however, seems neither etymologically nor exegetically probable. Ewald explains Sarai as meaning "contentious," from the verb Sarah, n, which (Gen. xxxii. 29; Hos. xii. 4) occurs in the sense of "to fight, to contend." This meaning is approved by Gesenius (Thes.' p. 1338), but the more usual derivation is probably the true.

16. she shall be a mother of nations] Heb. "she shall become nations."

17. laughed] Onkel. renders "rejoiced." Pseudo-Jon. "marvelled." The Jewish commentators, and many of the Christian fathers, understood this laughter to be the laughter of joy not of unbelief (Aug. 'De Civ.' XVI. 26). So also many moderns, e.g. Calvin, “partly exulting with gladness, partly carried beyond himself with wonder, he burst into laughter." It is thought also that our Blessed Lord may have alluded to this joy of Abraham (Joh. viii. 56), "Your father Abraham rejoiced to see My day, and he saw it and was glad;" for it was at the most distinct promise of a son, who was to be the direct ancestor of the Messiah, that the laughter is recorded (cp. also the words of the Blessed Virgin, Luke i. 47). On the other hand it must be admitted, that Abraham's words immediately following the laughter, seem at first sight as implying some unbelief, or at least weakness of faith, though they may be interpreted as the language of wonder rather than of incredulity.

18. O that Ishmael might live before thee!] These words may be interpreted in two ways, according as we understand the laughter of Abraham. They may mean, "I dare not hope for so great a boon as a son to be born hereafter to myself and Sarah in our old

she shall

nations.

nicians and Syrians in Palestine admit that they "learned this practice from the Egyptians" (Herod. II. 104). This is evidently a very loose statement. The Phoenicians probably did not use it, and the Jews, whom Herodotus here calls "the Syrians in Palestine," admitted that they had once dwelt in Egypt, but never admitted that they derived circumcision from thence. The statements of Diodorus and Strabo, which are more or less similar to those of Herodotus, were no doubt partly derived from him, and partly followed the general belief among the Greeks, that the "Jews were originally Egyptians" (Strabo, as above). It is stated by Origen (in Epist. ad Rom.' ch. II. 13) that the Egyptian priests, soothsayers, prophets, and those learned in hieroglyphics were circumcised; and the same is said by Horapollo (1. 13, 14). If these ancient writers were unsupported by other authorities, there would be no great difficulty in concluding that Herodotus had found circumcision among the Egyptian priests, had believed the Jews to be a mere colony from Egypt, and had concluded that the custom originated in Egypt, and from them was learned by the Ishmaelites and other races. It is, however, asserted by some modern Egyptologists, that circumcision must have prevailed from the time of the fourth dynasty, ie. from at least 2400 B.C., therefore much before the date generally assigned to Abraham, B.C. 1996, and that it was not confined to the priests, as is, they say, learned from the mummies and the sculptures, where circumcision is made a distinctive mark between the Egyptians and their enemies (see Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, in Rawlinson's Herodotus,' pp. 52, 146, 147, notes). If this be correct, we must conclude, that the Egyptians practised circumcision when Abraham first became acquainted with them, that probably some of Abraham's own Egyptian followers were circumcised, and that the Divine command was not intended to teach a new rite, but to consecrate an old one into a sacramental ordinance. Some even think that they see in the very style of this and the following verses indications that the rite was not altogether new and before unknown; for had it been new and unknown, more accurate directions would have been given of the way in which a painful and dangerous operation should be performed (Michaelis, 'Laws of Moses,' Bk. IV. Ch. iii. Art. 185). The Egyptians, Ethiopians, and perhaps some other African races, are supposed to have adopted it, partly from regard to cleanliness (Herod. II. 36),

CHAPTER XVIII.

1 Abraham entertaineth three angels. 9 Sarah is reproved for laughing at the strange promise. 17 The destruction of Sodom is revealed

to Abraham. 23 Abraham maketh intercession for the men thereof.

which the Egyptians, and above all the Egyptian priests, especially affected, partly to guard against disease incident in those hot climates (see Philo, as above, p. 211; Joseph. 'C. Apion.' II. 13), partly for other reasons, which may have been real or imaginary (see Michaelis, as above, Art. 186). This side of the question is ably defended by Michaelis, 'Laws of Moses,' as above, and Kalisch, in loc.

In answer it is truly said, that the Greek historians are too late and too loose in their statements to command our confidence; that the tribes cognate with the Egyptians, such as the Hamite inhabitants of Palestine, were notoriously uncircumcised, that the Egyptians, especially the Egyptian priests, are not unlikely to have adopted the rite at the time when Joseph was their governor and in such high estimation among them, and that the question concerning the relative dates of Abraham and the different Egyptian dynasties is involved in too much obscurity to be made a ground for such an argument as the above to be built upon it. (See Bp. Patrick, in loc.; Heidegger, 'Hist. Patr.' II. 240; Wesseling and Larcher, ‘ad Herod.' 11. 37, 104; Graves ' on the Pentateuch,' Pt. II. Lect. v.; Wordsworth, in loc.) Again, the argument derived from the ancient Egyptian language proves nothing, the words are lost or doubtful. The argument from the mummies proves nothing, as we have no mummies of the ancient empire. The figures in the hieroglyphics are later still. The only argument of weight is that derived from the old hieroglyphic, common in the pyramids, which is thought to represent circumcision. It may on the whole be said, that we cannot conclude from the loose statements of Greek writers 15 centuries later than Abraham, nor even from the evidence of monuments and sculptures as yet perhaps but imperfectly read and uncertain as to their comparative antiquity, that circumcision had been known before it was given to Abraham; yet that on the other hand, there would be nothing inconsistent with the testimony of the Mosaic history in the belief, that it had been in use among the Egyptians and other African tribes, before it was elevated by a Divine ordinance into a sacred rite for temporary purposes, to be served in the Mosaic dispensation. A very able summary of the arguments on both sides, not, of course, embracing those drawn from the more recent discoveries in Egypt, is given by Spencer, 'De Legg. Heb.' lib. I. c. 5. § 4. See Deut. x. 16 and Note.