past happiness, and calls up the image of his beloved. Then his monster-breeding fancy represents her as false as she is fair; he cries out as one upon the rack, when the cruel engine rends every joint and every sinew snaps. Anon he casts himself upon the ground, then springs up, and with the look and action of a demon bursting from the abyss of hell, he snatches the instrument of death, and after stabbing the woman so loved, suspected, hated, and lamented, plunges the dagger in his own. heart, exhibiting a terrible proof of what a man may become by the indulgence of an infernal passion.' Dr. Burgh has evidently drawn this picture of a man tortured by excess of jealousy from the leading incidents in the character of Othello. It is almost needless to observe that the voice exhibits all the various characteristics of the different conflicting emotions through which the jealous man passes as he gives utterance to his feelings. Contempt, disdain, scorn, and disgust seem to me to be emotions so closely allied that they pass by almost imperceptible degrees into each other. Quiet, calm contempt is usually conveyed by a slight smile and elevation of the upper lip, whilst at the same time the nose is somewhat raised up, and the ala of the nostrils contracted. Duchenne and Gratiolet both speak of the partial closing of the eyelids, or the turning away of the eyes, or the whole person, as being signs that are highly characteristic of disdain. "These actions seem to imply," says Mr. Darwin, "that the despised person is not worth looking at, or is disagreeable to behold." The elevation of the upper lip at one corner and the uncovering of the canine tooth by this action, while the face itself is a little upturned and half-averted from the person who is the object of scorn, is very strongly expressive of that feeling, and Mr. Darwin devotes the latter portion of his tenth chapter to a consideration of the subject and the origin of the action. The snapping of the fingers is also a very frequent and well-known gesture of extreme contempt and scorn. Mr. Tyler, in his "Early History of Mankind," says, in reference to this action, "it is not very intelligible as we generally see it; but when we notice that the same sign, made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object away with the thumbnail and forefinger are usual and well understood deaf and dumb gestures, denoting anything tiny, insignificant, or contemptible; it seems as though we had exaggerated and conventionalized a perfectly natural action, so as to lose sight of its original meaning. There is a curious mention of this gesture by Strabo. Disgust, as far as my own observations have extended, is in general shown by an exaggerated protrusion of the lips, accompanied by a drawing down of the corners of the mouth, and the utterance of certain peculiar, but well-known and strongly expressive, guttural sounds. A shudder more or less in degree may often, in extreme disgust, he seen to run through the whole frame, while a frown contracts the eyebrows * Dr. Burgh's "Essay on the Passions and Humours," pp. 25, 26, published 1784. Duchenne " Physionomie Humaine," Album. Légende VIII. p. 35; Gratiolet, "De la Physionomie," 1865, p. 52. Second edition, p. 45. and wrinkles the forehead. The arms may be noticed to be closely pressed against the sides, and the shoulders raised, where strong disgust is felt. I have now, I think, examined the principal passions and emotions to which human nature is liable. There may be some few others that might be named, but I believe they will be found to be gradations of the foregoing, or else to resolve themselves into complex emotions, and in justification of the time devoted to the full consideration I have given to this subject, I cannot do better than quote the words of Dr. Burgh. "If it be alleged that some of these passions and emotions are such as hardly ever are likely to come into the way of the speaker at the bar, in the pulpit, or in either House of Parliament, or indeed, save on the stage, in public life generally, it does not therefore follow, that the labour of studying and practising the proper ways of expressing them is useless. On the contrary, every speaker will find his account in enlarging his sphere of practice. A gentleman may not have occasion to fence or dance every day; but has occasion to go into society every day, and he will enter a room with all the better grace for his having learnt to fence and dance in the most elegant manner. The orator may not have occasion actually to express anger, malice, hatred, jealousy, and some few others of the more violent passions; but he will, by practising his organs of voice in the art of expressing them, acquire a masterly ease and fluency in giving utterance to those he has actually occasion to express. In closing this general review of the emotions of human nature, it would be impossible for me to find a more eloquent peroration than that afforded by Mr. Darwin's closing words. "The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin may have been, are in themselves of much importance to our welfare. They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and her infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child in the right path, or frowns disapproval. We all readily perceive sympathy in others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our pleasures increased, and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The movements of expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words. They reveal the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do words, which may be falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called science of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long ago remarked,† on different persons bringing into frequent use different facial muscles according to their dispositions, the development of these muscles being perhaps thus increased, and the lines or furrows on their face due to their habitual contraction, being thus rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions. He who * Dr. Burgh's "Essay on the Passions and Emotions," p. 27. Gratiolet, in his "De la Physionomie," 1865, p. 66, insists on the truth of this conclusion. gives way to violent gestures will increase his rage: he who does not control the signs of fear will experience fear in a greater degree, and he who remains passive when overwhelmed with grief, loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of mind. These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists between almost all the emotions and their outward manifestations, and partly from the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and consequently on the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to rouse it in our minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says, in the person of Hamlet : "Is it not monstrous that this player here, A broken voice, and his whole function suiting With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!" **We have seen that expression in itself, or the language of the emotions, as it has sometimes been called, is certainly of importance to the welfare of mankind. To understand, as far as is possible, the source or origin of the various expressions which may be hourly seen in the faces of the men around us, not to mention our domestic animals, ought to possess much interest for us. From those several causes, we may conclude that the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the attention which it has already received from several excellent observers, and that it deserves still further attention, especially from any able physiologist. NOTE. The student may consult with the greatest advantage Mr. Herbert Spencer's chapter on "The Language of the Emotions" in the second volume of his "Principles of Psychology," p. 539. LECTURE XVII. Hindrances to Fluency of Speech-Stammering and Stuttering-Definition of each of these Impediments-Various Causes of Stammering_and_Stuttering - Other Varieties of Defective Articulation—Means by which all Impediments of Speech may be removed-Special Directions for the Self-cure of Stammering and Stuttering, and the Correction of all Imperfect and Defective Articulation. 康 PROPOSE in this Lecture treating exclusively of those hindrances to fluency in delivery which commonly are classified under the names of stammering, stuttering, and impediments of speech. Persons in general use the terms stammering and stuttering indiscriminately, and call every variety of defective pronunciation by one or the other of these names, as if they were only synonyms. Stammering is the difficulty, in some cases the inability, to properly enunciate some or many of the elementary speech-sounds, accompanied or not by a slow, hesitating, more or less indistinct delivery, but not attended with frequent repetitions of the initial sounds, and consequent convulsive efforts to surmount the difficulty. Stuttering, on the other hand, is a vicious utterance manifested by frequent repetitions of initial or other elementary sounds, and always more or less attended with muscular contortions. The above is the definition of these two affections laid down by Dr. Hunt in his admirable and exhaustive book on the subject,* and to him is to be given the merit of having been, I believe, the first English writer to discriminate accurately between these two disorders, which differ both in kind and origin. To those who wish fully to investigate the history of these painful and unfortunate affections, which, unless removed, so often mar all the sufferer's prospects in life, as well as to see the many severe, cruel and useless operations and mechanical appliances which, from time to time, and by various persons, have been proposed, and too often adopted, for the cure of these maladies, I most strongly recommend Dr. Hunt's work on stammering, as well as his larger work, entitled, "The Philosophy of Voice and Speech."+ I avail myself of Dr. * Hunt on "Stammering." Longman and Co., 1861. + Longman and Co., 1859. Hunt's excellent resumé to place before you the chief causes of stammering. "Vowel Stammering.—The belief that stammering occurs only in the pronunciation of consonants is certainly erroneous; the vowels are equally subject to this defect, though not to the same extent as the consonants. The proximate causes of defective vowel sounds, may have their seat either in the vocal apparatus, or in the oral canal. The original sounds may be deficient in quality, from an affection of the vocal ligaments, as in hoarseness; or the sounds may be altered in the buccal and nasal cavities, from defects, or an improper use of the velum; in which cases the vowels are frequently aspirated. Enlargement of the tonsils, defective lips and teeth, may also influence the enunciation of the vowels. But the whole speech-apparatus may be in a healthy state, and yet the enunciation of the vowels may be faulty, from misemployment, or from defective association of the various organs upon which the proper articulation of the vowels depend. In some cases the faulty pronunciation may be traced to some defect in the organ of hearing. 66 DEFECTIVE ENUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS. "Consonantal Stammering may, like that of the vowels, be the result of an organic affection, either of the vocal apparatus, or of the organs of articulation. When, for instance, the soft palate, either from existing apertures or inactivity of its muscles, cannot close the posterior nares, so that the oral canal may be separated from the nasal tube, speech acquires a nasal timbre, and the articulation of many consonants is variously affected. B and then assume the sound of an indistinct m; d and t sound somewhat like n; and g and k like ng. The action of the velum during speech is thus described by Sir Charles Bell. "In a person whom I had the pain of attending long after the bones of the face were lost, and in whom I could look down behind the palate, I saw the operation of the velum palati. During speech it was in constant motion; and when the person pronounced the explosive letters, the velum rose convex, so as to interrupt the ascent of breath in that direction and as the lips parted, or the tongue separated from the teeth or palate, the velum recoiled forcibly.' “On the other hand, closure of the nasal tube, either from a common cold or other obstructions, affects the articulation of m, n, ng, which then sound nearly as b, d, g hard. "THE CHIEF CAUSES OF STAMMERING. "The variety of defects which constitute stammering result either from actual defective organisation or from functional disturbance. Among organic defects may be enumerated: hare-lip, cleft-palate, abnormal length and thickness of the uvula, inflammation and enlargement of the tonsils, abnormal size and tumours of the tongue, tumours in the buccal cavity, want or defective position of the teeth, &c. "Dr. Ashburner, in his work on Dentition, mentions a very curious case of a boy who, though not deaf, could not speak. This he attributed to the smallness of the jaws, which, taking at length a sudden start in |