PRELIMINARY.

WHAT is Geography? A description of the Earth. And is distinguished by different names according to? The nature of the subjects considered. When the figure, motion, and magnitude of the Earth, and the position of places upon its surface are considered, it is called? Mathematical Geography. When the various natural forms of the Earth's surface-land and water, mountains and plains -its atmosphere, climate, and productions are considered, it is termed? Physical Geography. And when the arbitrary divisions of the Earth's surface into kingdoms and states-the government of these states, and the moral. religious, and social condition of their inhabitants are considered, it is termed ? Political Geography. Descriptive Geography comprehends? Both physical and political geography.

The figure of the Earth which we inhabit is nearly that of? A globe or sphere. Continually spinning round on one of its diameters, called Its axis. The extremities of which are? The Poles. The two points in which the axis of the Earth, produced, would meet the heavens, are called? The Celestial Poles. That Pole of the Earth which points to the Celestial Pole, visible to us, is called? The North Pole. And the opposite extremity of the Earth's axis is called? The South Pole. A circular-indefinitely extended-plane, touching the Earth's surface, at any point, is called? The sensible horizon of that point. And the plane passing through the centre of the Earth, parallel to the sensible horizon, is called? Its rational, or true horizon. What is, popularly,

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meant by the term horizon? The circle that bounds the view of the spectator-all around-where the earth (or sea) and sky seem to meet. And if the eye of the spectator be supposed to have no elevation, this circle, when nothing obstructs the view, coincides with? The sensible horizon. A person standing with his face towards the N. Pole, will have his back towards? The South. His right hand towards? The East. And his left hand towards? The West. And these points of the horizon- viz., the North, South, East, and West, are called? The four cardinal points. Because, with reference to them? All other geographical positions and directions are determined.

Of the Circles and Divisions of the Artificial Terrestrial Globe, all of which are to be imagined as existing on the actual Globe of the Earth, of which it is a repre

sentation.

On the surface of the (artificial terrestrial) Globe are described a great variety of circles, and these circles are all either? Great or small. A circle, the plane of which passes through the centre of the globe, dividing it into two equal parts or hemispheres, is called? A great circle. And all others are called? Small circles. Every circle, whether great or small, is supposed to be divided into ? 360 degrees. Each degree into? 60 minutes. And each minute into? 60 seconds. It is evident, therefore, that the magnitude of degrees, minutes, and seconds, depends on ? The magnitude of the circle of whose circumference they are parts. What is the actual length of a degree of the Earth's circumference? Nearly 70 English miles. The circumference of the Earth, therefore, in round numbers, is about? 25,000 English miles. Its diameter about? 8000 English miles. And its superficial area about? 200,000,000 square miles.*

*The globe of the earth is not a perfect sphere. It is a spheroid slightly flattened at the poles :-the polar diameter being 7899 miles; and the equatorial diameter 7925 miles-i.e., 26 miles longer than the polar diameter. Its mean diameter is about 7912 miles; and its superficial area 197,000,000 of square miles..

The Equator (sometimes called the Equinoctial Line, or, simply, the Line) is? A great circle of the globe, which has all the points of its circumference equally distant from the poles. And divides the globe into? The Northern and Southern Hemispheres. A meridian is? The half of a great circle of the globe (passing through, and) intercepted between, the poles. And every place upon the surface of the globe is supposed to have? A meridian passing through it. The meridian of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, near London, is called? The first meridian. Latitude is? The distance of a place, N. or S., measured in degrees, from the equator. Longitude is? The distance of a place, E. or W., measured in degrees, from the first meridian. Parallels of Latitude are? Small circles of the globe, parallel to the equator, and gradually diminishing in size as they approach the poles. And every place between the equator and the poles is supposed to have? A parallel passing through it. The two parallels at a distance of 23 degrees N. and S. from the equator, are called, respectively? The Tropic of Cancer, and the Tropic of Capricorn. The two parallels at the distance of 23 degrees from the north and south Poles, are called, respectively? The Arctic and Antarctic Circles. The spaces between the Arctic and Antarctic Circles and the poles are called, respectively? The North and South Frigid Zones. The space between the Tropics? The Torrid Zone. And the spaces between the Tropics and the Polar Circles are called? The North and South Temperate Zones. If the surface of the globe were divided into 100 equal parts, the Torrid Zone would contain about? 40 of them. Each of the Temperate Zones about? 26. Frigid Zones about? 4.

*

And each of the

* The word tropic is derived from the Greek word tropos, which signifies a turn; and the tropics are so called, because the sun, when he becomes vertical to the northern tropic (at our longest day), apparently turns southward again; and when he becomes vertical to the southern tropic (at our shortest day), apparently turns northward again.

MAPS.

A map is ? A representation of the earth, or a part of it, on a plane surface. The top of a map, unless when otherwise expressed, is? The North. The bottom? The South. The right hand? The East. And the left hand? The West. In a map of the world, Longitude is marked on? The Equator. And Latitude on? The circles that contain the two hemispheres. In maps of particular countries, Longitude is marked on? The top and bottom. And Latitude? On the sides. If the degrees increase towards the right, the Longitude is? East. If they increase towards the left, the Longitude is? West. And if the degrees increase upwards, the Latitude is? North. But if they increase downwards, the Latitude is ?

South.

GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS.

Names of the Natural Divisions of the Earth's Surface.

The Land consists of? Continents, islands, peninsulas, capes or promontories, and isthmuses. And the Water consists of? Oceans, seas, gulfs, bays, straits, sounds or channels, and lakes.

Divisions of the Land.

A Continent is? A large extent of land, containing several countries? An Island is? A (smaller) portion of land wholly surrounded by water. A Peninsula is? A portion of land almost surrounded by water. A Cape is ? A portion of land jutting out into the sea; and, if elevated or mountainous, it is called a Promontory. An Isthmus is? A narrow neck of land connecting two larger portions. A Basin is? A tract of country drained or watered by a river and its tributaries. A Watershed is? An elevated tract or ridge separating two or more basins from one another.

Divisions of the Water.

An Ocean is? A very large expanse of salt water. A Sea is ? A like expanse of salt water, but smaller. A Gulf is? A portion of water almost surrounded by land. A Bay is? A portion of water running into the land, with a wider opening, but, generally speaking, of smaller extent than a Gulf. A Strait is? A narrow portion of water connecting two seas:-a Strait, so shallow that it may be fathomed, is called a Sound; and a wider or larger passage between two seas is called a Channel. A Lake is? A portion of water wholly surrounded by land. And a small reedy or sedgy Lake, less or more shaded from the sun-a bog, marsh, or fen-is sometimes termed ? A Tarn.

ADDITIONAL TERMS.

A Plateau or Table-land is? A tract of land elevated above the surrounding country. Extensive tracts of level land (differing materially, however, in aspect and quality), are called in the E. of Europe and N. of Asia? Steppes. In North America? Prairies or Savannahs. And in S. America? Llanos or Pampas, and, when forest-clad, Selvas. Downs are? Plains or banks of sand formed along the shore; also, high lying pasture lands. Fertile spots in Deserts are called? O'ases. An Estuary or Frith is? The wide part at the mouth of a river (where the tide boils), which connects its current with the main Ocean. An Archipelago is? A sea studded with islands. A Road or Roadstead is? An anchorage ground for ships, at a short distance from the land. A Harbour, Haven, or Port is? A place of permanent shelter for ships, where they may take on board and discharge their cargoes. A cove? A small gulf. And a Creek? A small and somewhat sheltered arm of the sea.