with the Romans. The Romans interposed for the assistance of their allies. The Gauls and Romans came to a battle near the city of Rome. The Roman army was entirely defeated, the city taken and burned, and the Capitol, or citadel, closely besieged. The Romans were constrained to purchase the retreat of the Gauls (B.C. 385,) for one thousand pounds of gold. This was during the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, king of Persia. It was not till the year 266 B.C. that the Romans were masters of all Italy.

The last and most formidable enemy that the Romans met with, in their wars to obtain the sovereignty of Italy, was Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He was brought into Italy by the Samnites and Tarentines to assist them against the Romans; and it was not till after a six years' war that the Romans were able to expel them. Pyrrhus was killed at the siege of Argos, B.C. 272: after which the unsubdued states of Italy submitted to Rome.

Soon after this, the Romans were engaged in the first war with the Carthaginians; usually called the first Punic War. The war continued 24 years, and ended in the Romans obtaining possession of Sicily, and forcing the Carthaginians to conclude a peace on very disadvantageous terms.

The interval between the first and second Punic Wars was occupied in subduing some tribes of Italy that had revolted; and also in taking possession of Corsica, Sardinia, and Malta. The second Punic War was purposely provoked by the younger Hannibal, now general of the Carthaginian army. He found a pretext for attacking Saguntum, a city in alliance with Rome. The Romans remonstrated, but in vain: and war was the consequence. Hannibal, having taken measures for securing Africa and Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, then continued his march to the Rhone: and scaling the Alps with his army, descended into the plains of Italy. There, by a series of able measures, military and diplomatic, he maintained himself for sixteen years, defeating the Romans in several pitched battles. At length Scipio, the Roman general, after defeating the Carthaginian forces in Spain, passed over to Africa, and threatened Carthage itself. Hannibal was recalled to defend his native city. He left Italy with regret, and contrary to his own judgment. He encoun

tered Scipio at Zama; but his army, consisting chiefly of mercenaries, was unequal to the army which Scipio commanded, and was defeated, B.C. 196. Peace was then made on terms for Carthage still more humiliating.

The Romans, however, were not satisfied with humbling this rival republic. It was a favourite maxim with some of their statesmen that Carthage should be overturned. The city was besieged; the people defended themselves with the greatest resolution; but being betrayed by one of their own citizens, the city was taken by storm, and destroyed B.C. 146.

An application for protection from Athens, induced the senate to declare war against Macedon, B.C. 200. This contest lasted four years, when Philip, having been defeated by the Consul Flaminius, agreed to peace.

After this, a contest commenced between the patricians and plebeians, which ended not till it had effected the ruin of the republic. Tiberius Gracchus, a tribune, proposed the Agrarian or Sempronian law, by which no citizen was permitted to hold above five hundred acres of conquered lands. This attempt so irritated the senators, that during the tumult of an election, they assassinated Gracchus, and three hundred of his partizans. His brother Caius Gracchus, when tribune, made a similar attempt, and on his return to a private station, was persecuted to death.

The Cimbri and Teutones, threatening to cover Italy with desolation, Marius was sent against them, and defeated them with immense slaughter. But his ambition and revengeful spirit brought innumerable calamities upon the republic.

The next important war in which the Romans were engaged was that of Mithridates, king of Pontus. This prince obtained possession of Phrygia, by bribing one of the Roman generals. He was driven out of it by Sylla; and this expulsion laid the foundation of determined enmity to the Romans. But this war was the occasion of more disastrous consequences to the state, than the resistance of Mithridates. Sylla and Marius contended for the privilege of conducting the war, which was likely to prove lucrative. Marius gained the popular interest, and was appointed to the command; but Sylla marched to Rome with six legions, proscribed Marius, and eleven of his adherents, who fled. Sylla, now deeming himself se

4

cure, returned to prosecute the war with Mithridates; but Marius came back to Rome, massacred great numbers of citizens, and distinguished senators, and abrogated the laws of Sylla. Marius then caused himself to be elected consul with Cinna; but survived his election only sixteen days. Italy, on Sylla's return, became the theatre of civil war.

Sylla, every where victorious, entered Rome in triumph, trampled on the laws, proscribed 80 senators, and several thousands of citizens, and gave up his enemies to military execution. Julius Cesar, who was nephew of Marius, narrowly escaped the carnage, while Pompey was a zealous partizan of Sylla. Sylla died, B.C. 78.

The civil war still continued; and also a servile war against about 40,000 rebel slaves raged. Pompey so much distinguished himself in these wars, that he was vested with the supreme command of the Roman army, and sent against Mithridates, king of Pontus, whom he subdued; and carrying the war beyond Pontus, he subdued Armenia, Syria, and Palestine. From these conquests he returned to Rome, B.C. 63.

Meanwhile Julius Cesar was signalizing himself in the west. Returning in triumph from Spain, he found Rome divided into two factions; the one attached to Pompey, the other to Crassus, who was the richest of the citizens, and these he persuaded to unite with him in sharing the empire among them. This was the first triumvirate.

Crassus, on entering on his province, made war on Parthia; and was defeated and slain. This broke up the triumvirate; for Pompey and Cesar, coming into direct collision, a contest immediately arose, who should be at the head of the state. Pompey had chief influence in the senate; Cesar among the soldiers. Cesar marched to Rome, and forced Pompey to retire. Pompey went to Greece, where he raised an army to withstand Cesar. Thither Cesar followed: and encountering him at Pharsalia, totally defeated him. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously murdered. When Cesar returned to Rome, he was greeted by the acclamations of the citizens; but, almost immediately afterwards was assassinated in the senate-house, at the foot of Pompey's statue.

His death rekindled the flames of war. The senate had its interests to promote; Antony, master of the horse, had

his; and Octavius, Cesar's sister's grandson, then only eighteen years of age, had views and interests different from both. After a series of intrigues and treacheries, a second triumvirate was formed, consisting of Octavius, who had assumed the name of Cesar Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus. The temporary alliance between these three, was founded upon a proscription of the enemies of each: and 300 senators and 2000 knights being included in this proscription, it soon filled Rome with bloodshed and terror. The triumvirate then proceeded to subdue the conspirators against Cesar. The contest was decided in Greece; the last decisive battle being fought at Philippi. After the death of the conspirators, the triumvirs divided the Roman empire among them. Antony, by this partition, went to Egypt, to govern the eastern kingdoms. There he met with the notorious Cleopatra, and was so fascinated by her, that he ceased from that time to attend to his interests with energy. Meanwhile Octavianus, whose unceasing aim was to centre the supreme power in his own person, easily found means to undermine Lepidus, to deprive him of all authority, and force him into banishment, where he died in obscurity. He then contrived to quarrel with Antony. The pretence was the insult which Antony had offered to his sister, whom he had married, and then deserted for Cleopatra. The war was decided by a naval engagement at Actium, in which Antony was defeated. He fled to Egypt, whither Octavianus followed him; and, finding it impossible to retrieve his affairs, put himself to death. Cleopatra, also, after a fruitless attempt to gain Octavianus, caused herself to be bitten by an asp, and died. Octavianus thus became sole monarch of the Roman empire, B.C. 27,-and received from the senate the title Augustus, by which title he is usually known. It was in the 23rd year of the reign of Augustus Cesar, when the empire was in profound peace, that the Saviour of the world was born at Bethlehem. The Christian era began four years later. The reason of this was, that the birth of the Saviour was not used as an era for the computation of time till some centuries afterwards; and, in computing the time backwards, a mistake was made of four years; so that his birth really took place in the year of the world 4000; although, in consequence of this error, the Christian era corresponds to the year of he world 4004.

JUDEA.-After the death of Alexander, the Jews fell under the dominion alternately of the Egyptian and Syrian kings, as the one or the other were able to take possession of Palestine. Judea was, consequently, during this period, almost constantly the theatre of war. A report having reached Jerusalem that Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, was dead, the people could not refrain from expressing their joy, which coming to the ears of Antiochus, he entered the city, and put to death, it is said, 40,000 of the inhabitants, and sold as many more for slaves. Some years afterwards, Antiochus, having been mortified by the Romans, resolved to wreak his vengeance on the Jews, and sent his general with the most sanguinary orders to put an end to their religion. A scene of carnage then commenced, that has hardly any parallel in history, till the people were driven to desperation. A priest named Mattathias collected a small body of resolute men, and, after many struggles, succeeded in driving the Syrian army beyond the borders of the kingdom. He was succeeded by his son, the renowned Judas Maccabæus, who defeated the Syrians in five pitched battles, and baffled all their attempts to recover Palestine. Antiochus was in Persia, whilst this revolution was taking place in Judea. Mad with rage he hastened back, breathing out slaughter and destruction against the Jews, when he was seized with a mortal disease, and died at Tabæ, a town on the frontiers of Persia and Babylonia. The Syrian generals renewed the war, and were defeated repeatedly by Judas, who was at length slain in battle, B.C. 161, and was succeeded by Jonathan, his brother. Jonathan conducted the affairs of the nation with the same prudence and success, till he was treacherously murdered. He was succeeded in the command by his brother Simon; who, after governing wisely for some years, was murdered by Ptolemy, who had married his daughter. Simon was succeeded by his son,

John Hyrcanus, who took the title of king. He was the first king after the captivity; and in his reign the nation rose to greater prosperity than it had enjoyed at any period since the restoration. On his death, B.C. 107, he was succeeded by a line of princes of his family who reigned about 50 years, when the Romans having taken Jerusalem, Antipater, a native of Idumæa, or Edom, but a