JOSHUA-JOSIAH.

Such

Ephraim, and was born in Egypt. Before the
Israelites had reached Sinai, he was chosen by
Moses to command the troops that fought against
Amalek; and shortly before the death of the great
lawgiver, he was publicly invested by the latter
with the whole civil and military government
of the Israelites. The vigorous and, on the whole,
successful manner in which he pursued the con-
quest of Canaan, and distributed the land among
the tribes, is minutely described in the book which
He died at the age of 110, and
bears his name.
was buried at Timnath-Serah, in Ephraim.-The
so-called Book of Joshua, in its present form, con-
taining an account of the conquest and division
of the 'Land of Promise,' was neither written by
him nor by any of his contemporaries; but the
compiler has certainly made copious use, espe-
cially in the earlier chapters, of documents drawn
up during the period of the conquest.
passages as that relative to the harlot Rahab-
and she dwelleth in Israel unto this day' (vi. 25)
-demonstrate their own antiquity; but on the
other hand, such passages as the narrative of the
capture of Hebron (of which there are several),
which did not take place till after the death of
J.; the frequency of the expression, unto this
day,' in connections that forbid us to suppose the
interval a brief one; the allusion to Judah and
Israel as distinct (xi. 21); the lateness of many of
the grammatical forms, &c., clearly indicate the
gradual growth of the book under successive editors,
the last of whom is placed by Masius, Spinoza,
Hasse, &c., after the exile, and by Ewald in the
A Samaritan Book
time of Manasseh; while Keil and others place the
book in the time of Saul.
of Joshua (Chronicon Samaritanum), containing a
chronological narrative of events from the death
of Moses down to the time of the Roman emperor
Hadrian, compiled from Arabic and Hebrew sources,
about 1300 A.D., is extant in Arabic, and was first
It differs very considerably from
edited at Leyden in 1848, by Juynboll, along with
a Latin version.
the canonical Book of Joshua.

returned to Jerusalem, and henceforth belonged to the body of the Pharisees,' which, in fact, comprised the bulk of the people. So great was the regard for his abilities, that at the age of only twenty-six years he was chosen delegate to Nero. When the Jews rose in their last and fatal insurrection against the Romans, J. was appointed governor of Galilee. Here he displayed the greatest valour and prudence; but the advance of the Roman general Vespasian The city of (67 A. D.) made resistance hopeless. Jotapata, into which J. had thrown himself, was taken after a desperate resistance of 47 days. Along with some others, he concealed himself in a cavern, but his hiding-place was discovered, and being brought before Vespasian, he would have been sent to Nero, had he not-according to his own account, for J. is his own and his sole biographer-prophesied that his captor would yet become emperor of Rome. Nevertheless, he was kept in a sort of easy imprisonment for about three years. J. was present in the Roman army at the siege of Jerusalem by Titus; and after the fall of the city (70 A. D.), was instrumental in saving the lives of some of his relatives. After this, he appears to have resided at Rome, and to have devoted himself to literary studies. The exact period of his death is not ascertained. All we know is, that he survived Agrippa II., who died 97 A. D. He was thrice married, and had children by his second and third wives. His works are: History of the Jewish War, in 7 books, written both in Hebrew and Greek (the Hebrew version is no longer extant); Jewish Antiquities, in 20 books, containing the history of his countrymen from the earliest times down to the end of the reign of Nero (the fictitious Hebrew Josippon, which for a long time was identified with J.'s Antiquities, dates from the 10th c. A.D.); a treatise on the Antiquity of the Jews, against Apion, in 2 vols., valuable chiefly for its extracts from old historical writers; and an Autobiography (37-90 A.D.), in one book, which may be considered supThe other works plementary to the Antiquities. attributed to him are not believed to be genuine. JOSI'AH (Heb. Yoshiyahu, 'Jehovah will help'), The peculiar character of J. is not difficult to one of the kings of Judah, was the son of Amon and describe. He was, in the main, honest and veracious; he had a sincere liking for his countrymen, Jedidah, and succeeded his father (641 B. C.) at the and rather more pride and enthusiasm in the old age of eight years. He was apparently brought up national history than he could well justify; but the under the care of the priesthood, early manifested a pious disposition, and became a determined relihopelessness of attempting to withstand the enorIn like manner, it seems, he marched idolatry. mous power of the Romans, and an aversion to gious reformer, purging Judah and Jerusalem from This statement has martyrdom, caused him to side with the enemy:perhaps in the faint hope of being thus of some through the land of Israel. The influence of Greek naturally excited much surprise. For more than a use to the national cause. philosophy and learning is visible in all his writings, hundred years, the kingdom of Israel had been a and, as far as biblical history is concerned, infused part of the Assyrian empire; its people were, for the into it a tone of rationalism." He speaks of Moses most part, carried into exile, and their place supas a human, rather than a divinely inspired law-plied by heathen colonists. It was in the reign of giver; he doubts the miracle in the crossing of the Red Sea; the swallowing of Jonah by the whale; and, generally speaking, whatever is calculated to teach that there was a special miraculous Providence at work on behalf of the chosen people. His style is easy and elegant, and J. has often been called the Greek Livy. The editio princeps of the Greek text appeared at Basel (Froben) in 1544. Since then, the most important editions (with notes) are those of Hudson (Oxford, 1720), Havercamp (Amst. 1726), Oberthür (Leip. 1782-1785), Richter (Leip. 1825-1827), and Dindorf (Paris, 1845). J. has been frequently translated; the two best known versions in English are by L'Estrange (Lond. 1702) and Whiston (Lond. 1737).

:

JO'SHUA (Heb. Yehoshua, Jehovah helps'), the name of the celebrated Hebrew warrior under whose leadership the land of Canaan was conquered. He was the son of Nun, of the tribe of

J. that Hilkiah the high-priest found the 'Book of
the Torah'-by which some understand Deuter-
onomy, others Exodus, and others, again, the whole
Pentateuch-while the workmen were repairing the
temple. J. does not appear to have heard of its
existence before; at least, the words of it strike
him as something novel, and excite the profoundest
emotions in his breast. In commemoration of the
discovery, the king celebrated the feast of the
Passover with a splendour never before equalled.
After this, he continued his work of extirpating
every trace of idolatry. Wizards, conjurors, all
In these efforts, the monarch
the abominations' that could be 'spied in the land,'
were put away.'
seems to have spent the greater part of his reign.
He met his death at Megiddo, in the valley of
Esdraelon, when attempting to check the advance
of Pharaoh-Necho against the Assyrians. (Compare
Herod. II. 159.) J. was the last of the good kings

741

JOSIKA-JOULE.

of Judah. In his days prophesied Jeremiah and was for some time a member of the Chamber of Zephaniah. Deputies, and was a follower of Guizot.

JOUNPUR JUBILEE.

JOUNPU'R, a town in the North-west Provinces was the fishing-town of Largo, in Fifeshire, Scotof India, is situated on both banks of the Gumti, land, resided in solitude for four years (1704which is here crossed by an ancient bridge, so strong 1708). as to be periodically submerged without injury. Lat. 25° 44' N., long. 82° 44′ E. This structure is commanded by a fort still older than itself, a work of the latter half of the 14th century. The pop. is (1872) 25,531. J. is the capital of a district of the same name, with an area of 1555 square miles, and (1872) 1,025,869 inhabitants. Sugar is largely produced.

His romantic story is supposed to have suggested the idea of the Robinson Crusoe of Defoe.

JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, COMTE, a French marshal, born 29th April 1762, at Limoges, where He early entered the his father was a surgeon. army, embraced with great zeal the cause of the Revolution, and soon rose to the rank of a general of division. In September 1793, he obtained the command of the Army of the North, and on 16th October gained an important victory at Wattignies. In 1794 and 1795, he commanded the Army of the Meuse and Sambre, and prosecuted the war with In 1796, he pushed his great vigour and success. way far into Germany, but was driven back by the Archduke Charles; and this discomfiture led to In 1799, the his resignation of his command. Directory intrusted him with the command of the Army of the Danube; but he was defeated by the Archduke Charles at Stockach. Although he opposed the coup d'état of 18th Brumaire, the First Consul employed him, in 1800, in the re-organisation and administration of Piedmont; and on the establishment of the Empire in 1804, he was made a marshal, and a member of the Council of State. He accompanied King Joseph to Naples, and afterwards to Spain, and in his service he was actively employed as a general. He offered his services to Napoleon after his return from Elba. Louis XVIII. made him a count in 1815. In 1819, he was made a peer of France; but his republican principles led him to enter heartily into the revolution of 1830. He lived and died poor. His death took place on

23d November 1833.

JOUSTS, exercises of arms and horsemanship, performed in the middle ages by knights and nobles. In the joust, the combatants engaged one another singly, each against his antagonist, and not in a troop, as in the Tournament (q. v.). The number of courses to be run and strokes to be given was generally three, but sometimes a larger number. The weapon most in use in the joust was the lance, but sometimes the battle-axe and sword were employed. To direct the lance anywhere, but at the body of the antagonist, was reckoned foul-play. In the joust of peace, or joute de plaisance, a foot encounter preceded the mounted combat. In the 15th c., the usages of jousting had come to differ in different countries to such an extent, that an elaborate treatise was written in explanation of the various modes, distinguishing the characteristic differences.

JUAN, DON. See DON JUAN.

JU'AN FERNANDEZ, called also MAS-A-
TIERRA, a rocky island in the Pacific Ocean, about
400 miles off Valparaiso, on the coast of Chili, to
which it belongs. Lat. 33° 40′ S., long about 79° W.
It is 18 miles long, 6 miles broad, and is for the
most part covered with high rocky peaks, the highest
of which, Yungu, is about 4000 feet above sea-
level. There are also numerous and fertile valleys,
which yield oats, turnips, apples, strawberries,
melons, peaches, figs, grapes, sandal-wood, and
other varieties of timber. Numbers of wild-goats
According to the latest
wander on the cliffs.
accounts, the island was ceded in 1868 to a society
Here
of Germans, who intended to colonise it.
Alexander Selkirk, a buccaneer, whose native place

JUBÆ'A, a genus of palms of the same tribe
J. spectabilis is a palm of 30
with the cocoa-nut.
or 40 feet high, with a wide-spreading crown of
pinnate leaves; a native of Chili, where it is called
Coquito. The Chilians cut off the crown, and collect
the sap, which flows freely for several months, a
fresh slice of the top of the stem being cut off every
morning. A good tree will yield ninety gallons of
sap, which being boiled down to a syrup of the con-
sistence of treacle, receives the name of miel de
palma (palm-honey), and is an important article of
the domestic economy of the country. The Jubaa
is, in fact, the Jaggery (q. v.) palm of Chili.

The

JU'BILEE, THE YEAR OF (Heb. Yobel), a peculiar institution among the Hebrews (Leviticus xxv.), by which, every fiftieth (not forty-ninth) year, the land that in the interval had passed out of the possession of those to whom it originally belonged was restored to them, and all who had been reduced to vants, were released from their bondage; no less poverty, and obliged to hire themselves out as serwere (Jos. Ant. iii. 12. 3) all debts remitted. jubilee forms, as it were, an exalted Sabbatical Year itself in the former as in the latter. The design of (V.), and the land was completely to be left to this institution was chiefly the restoration of the prevent the growth of an oligarchy of landowners, equilibrium in the families and tribes. It was to and the total impoverishment of some families; as well as to increase the fertility of the soil and the growth of the population. It was proclaimed at the end of the harvest-time, like the sabbatical year, on the tenth day of the seventh month-the day of atonement by the yobel (a kind of horn), hence also its name.

There is no trace in the whole his

tory of the Hebrews down to the Babylonian exile that the jubilee had ever been observed: after the return, however, it appears to have been rigorously kept, like the sabbatical year, for some time at least; but, from its general impracticability, it must soon have fallen into disuse. When the sabbatical year was de facto repealed by Hillel's Prosbol (a legal document entitling the creditor to claim his debt during this period), mention is no longer made of the yobel. The speculations of modern critics on the possibility of the yobel, and on the date of its inauguration, cannot prevail against the undeniable fact that it has been kept, and also that it is much more in harmony with the primitive theocratic character of the Mosaic institutions— according to which all the land was held as a kind of loan from Jehovah, who alone had an absolute right over it-than with those of any later period, to which it otherwise would have to be referred.

JUBILEE, or JUBILEE YEAR, an institution of the Roman Catholic Church, the name of which is borrowed from that of the Jewish jubilee. The Catholic jubilee is of two kinds-ordinary' and extraordinary.' The ordinary jubilee is that which is celebrated at stated intervals, the length of which has varied at different times. Its origin is traced to Pope Boniface VIII., who issued, for the year 1300, a bull granting a plenary indulgence to all pilgrimvisitors of Rome during that year, on condition of their penitently confessing their sins, and visiting the church of St Peter and St Paul, fifteen times if strangers, and thirty times if residents of the city. Giovanni The invitation was accepted with marvellous enthusiasm. Innumerable troops of pilgrims from every part of the church flocked to Rome.

743

JUDEA-JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL.

JUDE, EPISTLE OF, one of the smallest and least important books in the canon of the New Testament, was placed among the Antilegomena (Doubtful Writings) by the primitive church, while some even considered it spurious. It was not made use of by the Asiatic churches until the 4th c., and does not appear to have been known in the West until towards the end of the 2d. Even those who quote it do so with hesitation, such as Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, and Jerome. At the Reformation, similar suspicions revived, and were entertained first by Luther and Calvin, and afterwards by the Magdeburg Centuriators and Grotius. In modern times, the tide of critical opinion has run strongly against its canonicity.

Villani, a contemporary chronicler, states that the of both species is very beautiful, veined with black, constant number of pilgrims in Rome, not reckoning and takes an excellent polish. those who were on the road going or returning, during the entire year, never fell below 200,000. As instituted by Boniface, the jubilee was to have been held every hundredth year. Clement VI., in obedience to an earnest request from the people of Rome, abridged the time to fifty years. His jubilee accordingly took place in 1350, and was even more numerously attended than that of Boniface; the average number of pilgrims, until the heats of summer suspended their frequency, being, according to Matthew Villani, no fewer than 1,000,000! The term of interval was still further abridged by Urban VI., and again by Paul II., who, in 1470, ordered that thenceforward each twenty-fifth year should be held as jubilee—an arrangement which has continued ever since to regulate the ordinary jubilee. Paul II. extended still more, in another way, the spiritual advantages of the jubilee, by dispensing with the personal pilgrimage to Rome, and granting the indulgence to all who should visit any church in their own country designated for the purpose, and should, if their means permitted, contribute a sum towards the expenses of the Holy Wars. The substitution by Leo X. of the fund for building St Peter's Church for that of the Holy War, and the abusive and scandalous proceedings of many of those appointed to preach the Indulgence (q. v.), were among the proximate causes of the Reformation. In later jubilee years, the pilgrimages to Rome gradually diminished in frequency, the indulgence being, for the most part, obtained by the performance of the prescribed works at home; but the observance itself has been punctually maintained at each recurring period, with the single exception of the year 1800, in which, owing to the vacancy of the holy see, and

the troubles of the times, it was not held.

The extraordinary jubilee is ordered by the pope out of the regular period, either on his accession, or on some occasion of public calamity, or in some critical condition of the fortunes of the church; one of the conditions for obtaining the indulgence in such cases being the recitation of certain stated prayers for the particular necessity in which the jubilee originated.

JUDE'A. See PALESTINE.

JU'DAH (Heb. Yehuda, 'the Bepraised One') was the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, and founder of the greatest and most numerous of the twelve tribes. In the march through the wilderness, it had the post of honour-the van-assigned to it; and tradition narrates that its standard was a lion's

whelp, with the words: Arise, O Lord, and let thine enemies be scattered!' After the conquest of Canaan, its territories stretched from the Dead Sea on the east to the Mediterranean on the west (though the Philistines long held possession of the fertile district west of the mountains of Judah), and from Jerusalem (excluding that city) on the north to the land of the Amalekites on the south. The capital of the tribe was Hebron.

JUDAIZERS. See EBIONITES.

JUDAS'S TREE (Cercis), a genus of trees of the natural order Leguminosa, sub-order Casalpiniec. The common J. T. (C. Siliquastrum) is a native of the south of Europe, and of the warmer temperate parts of Asia. It has almost orbicular, very obtuse leaves. The flowers, which are rose-coloured, appear before the leaves. There is a legend that Judas hanged himself on a tree of this kind. The American J. T. (C. Canadensis) is very similar, but has acuminate leaves. The flower-buds of both species are frequently pickled in vinegar. The wood

'Lord.'

In

JUDGE is the generic descriptive name given to those who are invested with the power of judging and deciding causes in the highest courts of common law. In Great Britain-though it is otherwise in America-it is not usual to designate the highest class of judges by the epithet of judge, and British lawyers never do so. Thus, instead of saying Judge Blackstone, Judge Pollock, Judge Eldon, the proper description is-Mr Justice Blackstone, Chief Baron Pollock, Lord Chancellor Eldon, &c., according to the particular court in which they presided. Scotland, the usual prefix to the name of a judge is Lord; and the judges there, on their appointment, often assume new titles in addition to the prefix In England, the judges of the superior courts are only called lords while they sit in court, and are so addressed by counsel, but not elsewhere. The practice has long been for the crown to confer the honour of knighthood on all the judges of the superior courts of law and equity in England, but not in Ireland or Scotland. All the superior judges are appointed by the crown, and since 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2, have held their offices during good behaviour; since 1 Geo. III. c. 23, they have also continued to hold their appointments notwithstanding the demise of the crown. They can only be removed from their office on the address of both They are all, except the Master of the Rolls, disqualified from sitting in the House of Commons. Judges have no privileges over other persons in respect of their obeying the law, except that the common-law judges in England have the privilege of suing and being sued in their own court, though not of judging in their own cases.

Houses of Parliament.

The term judge has also been appropriated as the proper descriptive title of the judges of the county courts established in England in 1846.-Judge Ordinary, in English law, is the descriptive title of one judge only-viz., the judge of the Divorce and Probate Court. In Scotland, the phrase is often applied to all judges, superior and inferior, whenever they have a fixed and determinate jurisdiction, in contradistinction to commissioners, who have an occasional and temporary judicial authority delegated to them.

JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL, the supreme judge, under the Mutiny Act and Articles of War, of the proceedings of courts-martial. This officer is also the adviser, in legal matters, of the Commanderin-Chief and Secretary of State for War. Before confirmation, the sentences of all courts-martial, with the evidence adduced, are submitted to him and it is for him to represent to the commanderin-chief any illegality of procedure, or other circumstance rendering it undesirable that the Queen should be advised to confirm the court's decision. The judge-advocate-general receives a salary of

JUDGES-JUDGMENT.

£2000, and is a member of the House of Commons chambers all the year round to dispose of these
and of the ministry-changing, of course, with the applications, which are chiefly matters of form, but
latter. As it is essential that the judge-advocate- of urgency.
general should have an intimate acquaintance with
the military law, as well as with the general
law of the land, he is provided with an assistant
or deputy, whose office is permanent, and who is
selected from among barristers of eminence.

The Deputy-Judge-Advocate is an officer holding a temporary commission as public prosecutor in every court-martial. He must be an officer of intelligence, as it is part of his duty to examine and cross-examine witnesses, to warn the members of the court of any illegality in their proceedings, and generally to fulfil, in the limited area of the court, the functions which belong to the judge-advocategeneral in regard to the whole army.

criticism.

sagas.

JUDGES, BOOK OF (Heb. Shoftim), a canonical book of the Old Testament, recording the achievements of those heroes who, at different periods in the early history of the Hebrews, before the consolidation of the government under a monarchy, from Joshua to Samuel, arose to deliver their countrymen from the oppressions of neighbouring nations, but only three of whom, Deborah, Eli, and Samuel, were Judges in our sense of the word. The contents of the book have given rise to much It cannot be said to be a history, properly speaking. The events recorded in it do not follow each other chronologically, nor is there any other order to be perceived in their arrangement. It is rather a collection of detached historical traditions from the time of the Hebrew republic -probably redacted in the commencement of the reign of David-from ancient poems and popular It exhibits (whether with a royalistic tendency, as has been supposed by some, or in order to point the moral that however deeply sunk a people-emphatically the people might be in slavery or idolatry, or both, God would always send them a deliverer from either at the right time) the lawless and ungodly state of Israel during the greater part of this period, and the evil consequences their intimate connection with the idolatrous nations around them brought upon them. The book naturally falls into two portions-the first, up to chapter xvi., containing the heroic deeds of the single 'judges;' the second, from chapter xvii., the two accounts of the idol of Micah, and of the crime of Benjamin. The space of time over which the book extends has of old been hotly contested: that it comprises no less than 300 years (cf. xi. 26) is, however, almost the only point on which we can feel certain, since there is no doubt that many of the events recorded in the book did not follow upon one another, but fell in the same period: a circumstance which chronologers generally have failed to take into account. The book itself differs consider ably from the other historical books of the Bible by its simplicity and originality. That most of the heroic adventures related contain-sometimes, perhaps, under a highly poetical guise-true historical facts, has been doubted by but a very small number of critics. Ancient traditions make Samuel the author, or rather redactor of the book, and there is certainly little to be said against, and much for, this supposition. Compare Ewald, Wette, Rosenmüller, Studer, Keil, &c. See JEWS.

JUDGE'S CHAMBERS means the place where a single common-law judge sits near Chancery Lane, London, in an informal manner, to hear attorneys make applications of an unimportant nature arising out of actions pending in court. If the judge refuse, or decide wrongly, there is an appeal to the court of which he is a judge. In general, a judge sits at

All

JUDGMENT is, in English Law, the term usually applied to the final determination of a commonlaw court in an action, and when the litigation is at an end. In the courts of equity, the more usual corresponding term is a decree or order, and in criminal and Admiralty courts, a sentence. judgments of the superior courts are, as a general rule, capable of being appealed against (see APPEAL). When a judgment is not appealed against within a certain time allowed for the purpose, then it is final, and binding on the parties. If the judgment is registered, it will have the effect of preventing the judgment debtor from selling or alienating his lands, but in general has no such effect on his goods and chattels or personal estate, except money invested in government stock. In order to make a judgment effectual in an action of debt, if the debtor refuses to pay, a further process is necessary on the part of the creditor, called Execution (q. v.). In Scotland, judgment is usually called a Decree (q. v.), and JUDGMENT. This familiar word of every-day judgment by default is called a decree in absence. discourse has a technical meaning in Logic, to which A 'judgment,' in logic, is an affirmacorresponds its acceptation as the name of a faculty of the mind. tion of some kind or other, as 'snow is white,' 'man In a judgment, two is mortal.' The contrast to it is a mere notion, as white, mountain, mortality. notions must always enter, but this is not the whole; there must be some declaration coupling the two together, a function performed in all cases by a verb. A complete meaning, as expressed in a grammatical sentence, is a judgment. Other designations for the same thing are-proposition, assertion, predication.

The intellectual faculty called Judgment has reference to the logical force of the word, and means the power of forming judgments, and by implication, the further power of determining them to be true or false. This last function is perhaps what is most prominently implied in the faculty, as commonly understood.

The intellectual power of judging, when probed to its deepest foundations in the mind, resolves itself into one of two things-the discrimination of difference, or the perception of agreement in the midst of difference (see INTELLECT). A judge in a court of law finds that a case comes under, or does not come under, a certain statute; which finding constitutes his decision. A scientific man decides a An artist approves or disaptheory to be true by a certain extent of coincidence with observed fact. proves a work of art by its agreeing or disagreeing with his standard, or those previous productions that have settled his conception of excellence in that species.

JUDGMENT (in Theology). The doctrine of a judgment after death has always been associated with the belief in man's immortality, and is maintained as a doctrine of natural religion on the ground of that responsibility of which conscience always absence of a due proportion of rewards and punishmore or less distinctly testifies, and of the evident ments to human actions in this life. This doctrine, however, as a doctrine of the Christian religion, contains many things of which there is no evidence apart from revelation. Thus, we are told of a day or time of judgment, when, in great solemnity, and in presence of an assembled universe, the judgment shall be pronounced; also, that the Lord Jesus Christ is to appear in glory as judge. As a doctrine of revelation, the doctrine of a final judgment is

745