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HYPOXANTHINE-HYRACOTHERIUM.

happily conceived as to express with fidelity a series of extremely complicated phenomena. This was not the character of Newton's hypothesis as to the motion of the moon; the power supposed by him (the earth's gravity) was an actual or existing force, and all he did was to suggest that it extended as far as the moon. Accordingly, M. Auguste Comte and Mr J. S. Mill have laid it down as the condition of a sound scientific hypothesis, that the cause assigned to the phenomenon in question should be either a real cause, or capable of being ascertained to be a real cause, and that the liberty given to the scientific inquirer should be confined to imagining its operation in a particular sphere, and the law and amount of its operation, since both these could be verified by experiment and calculation. On the other hand, Dr Whewell has contended, that an amount of agreement with observed facts, such as has been exemplified by the undulatory hypothesis, is sufficient to establish not merely an hypothesis, but a theory, at least until such a time as some discordant facts arise, when the theory must be modified or abandoned. But whatever name be given to this class of suppositions, it is evident that they must

be deemed inferior in scientific value to the other class of suppositions, where no cause or agent is assumed but what is actually known to exist, and where the only question is, the presence of that agent in such manner and amount as to tally with the observed facts. Gravity, heat, electricity, magnetism, are established natural agents, and when we assume any one of these as the cause of some phenomena, we are on safe ground so far, that if it be once shewn that they are actually operative in the case we are dealing with, and that their calculated effect exactly coincides with the observed effect, the explanation is complete and final; no subsequent discovery can disturb a conclusion established in this way. But if we have to assume the very agency itself, or to imagine a power that we have no experience of, the coincidence between the laws of the assumed agency and the laws of the phenomena produces at best but a temporary or provisional evidence, which is liable to be superseded whenever a still better imagined machinery shall be brought forward. Thus, in the case of light, the first hypothesis, that of Newton himself, was a stream or shower of corpuscles; this gave way to the undulatory ether, whose merit lay in embracing the facts more closely; but we have no security against the ultimate preference of some third supposition which shall displace the second, as that did the first; while, perhaps, a day may come when an agency shall be proved to exist capable of explaining the phenomena. Even granting that we must sometimes assume an unknown agent (when an effect seems to be beyond the power of all the recognised forces), yet, in ordinary researches, it is considered a grave objection if the assumed agent be of such a subtle or occult nature, or so far removed from observation, that its existence does not admit of being proved. Such was the doctrine of the Cartesian vortices, and such are any hypotheses as to the shapes, sizes, and distances of the ultimate atoms of matter. Such also is the doctrine of nervous fluids, whereby the impulses of mind are supposed to be propagated between the brain and the other parts of the body.

HYPOXANTHINE, a substance found in the spleen and muscles of the heart of man, and in the spleen and blood of the ox. It is a white crystalline powder, almost insoluble in cold hydrochloric acid, very slightly soluble in boiling alcohol, and requiring for solution in water 1090 equivalents of cold, or 180 of boiling water. Its solution has a neutral re-action.

HYPSILANTIS. See YPSILANTI.

HYRA CEUM, a peculiar substance found in the crevices of the rocks of Table Mountain, Cape of Good Hope. It is one or more of the excrements of the Cape Hyrax (Hyrax Capensis). Hyraceum is a blackish-brown viscid material, not unlike soft pitch, having a strong and offensive taste, not unlike castoreum, for which it has been used as a substitute in medicine. At one time, so large a quantity was found as to suggest the idea of its being used as a manure, but the supply was soon exhausted, and only a small quantity is now imported to meet the demand of the curious pharmaceutist.

HYRACOTHE'RIUM, a genus of fossil Pachydermata, belonging to the division Perrysodactyla, the animals of which are characterised by having an odd number of toes. The genus was founded by Owen on the fragmentary remains of two species found in Lower Eocene strata; a third species from the same beds has been since described by him from more complete materials, under the name Pliolophus vulpiceps; he considers it only a subgenus, and as we can see no characteristics to separate it generically from the other two, we place it here as a true hyracothere. The fossil was discovered in a nodule from the Roman cement bed of the London Clay near Harwich. It is the most complete Eocene mammalian fossil of the London Clay. It consists of an entire skull and a portion of the rest of the skeleton, including the right humerus and femur, a great part of the left femur, the left tibia, and three metatarsal bones, apparently of the same foot, besides fragments of pelvis, ribs, and vertebra. The head (fig. A 1 and A 2) is 5 inches long, and 2 inches 2 lines broad; it is slender, tapering

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Hyracotherium:

A1, A2, skull of Hyracotherium (Pliolophus) vulpiceps (ore third natural size). A 3, molar tooth (natural size). B1, B 2, skull of H. leporinum (one-third natural size). BA molar tooth (natural size). C 1, portion of lower jaw and tooth of H. cuniculus (natural size). C 2, molar tooth (natural size).

gradually from the zygomatic region to the muzzle; the upper outline is straight; the bony rim of the orbit is incomplete behind for about one-fifth of its circumference. The narrow skull and incomplete orbit ally it to the Palæothere; the same form of orbit occurs also in the rhinoceros, and more exactly in the tapir. The straight contour of the skull, and the structure of the nasal aperture, shew affinities with the horse and hyrax. The third molar of the upper jaw (fig. A 3) shews the structure

of the teeth.

HYRAX-HYSSOP.

of the lower jaw, tell plainly of the herbivorous Judæa herself for the next nine years. The teeth, as well as the form high-priest by his mother Alexandra, who ruled character of the hyracothere. The bones of the her death (69 B. C.), his younger brother, Aristoleg exhibit ungulate affinities, and their form and bulus, a braver and more energetic man, seized After proportions are between those of the hyrax and the government, and forced H. to withdraw into the tapir. The second species was founded on a private life. Induced by the Idumæan, Antipater, mutilated cranium (fig. B 1, B 2), rather larger and aided by Aretas, king of Arabia Petræa, he than a hare's, found in the cliffs of London Clay near endeavoured to win back his dominions, but was Herne Bay. It shews a skull very like the first not successful until Pompey began to favour his species, though broader at the orbital region. The cause. third molar tooth (fig. B 3) has a larger number Aristobulus was poisoned by the partisans of After some years of tumultuous fighting, of cones than the same tooth in the first species. Ptolemy (49 B. c.), and H., who had for some time The third species was founded on several teeth possessed, if he had not enjoyed, the dignity of which belonged to a smaller animal than either high-priest and ethnarch, was now deprived of the of the others, found in the Eocene sand underlying latter of these offices, for which, in truth, he was the Red Crag at Kyson, in Suffolk. The molar wholly incompetent. (fig. C 2) exhibits a structure similar to that of of the services rendered to him by Antipater, made the others figured. From the same deposit were the latter procurator of Judæa, and thus left in his Cæsar (47 B. C.), on account obtained two teeth belonging to a lower jaw, one hands all the real power, H. busying himself only of them, the third molar, still in its socket, and with the affairs of the priesthood and temple. having a fragment of the jaw attached to it Troubles, however, were in store for him. Antipater (fig. 1). These teeth were considered by Owen was assassinated, and Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, to belong to a quadrumanous animal, and were with the help of the Parthian king, Orodes I., described by him as Macacus Eocanus, at once invaded the land, captured H. by treachery, cut off the first terrestrial mammal which has been found his ears, and thus disqualified him for the office of in the London Clay, and the first quadruman-high-priest, and carried him off to Seleucia on the animal hitherto discovered in any country Tigris. Some years later, Herod, son of his old friend Antipater, obtained supreme power in Judæa, and invited the aged H. home to Jerusalem. He was allowed to depart, and for some time lived in ease and comfort, but falling under suspicion of intriguing against Herod, he was put to death (30 B. C.).

ous

in Tertiary strata so old as the Eocene period.' Since its publication, speculative geologists have made good service of this 'monkey.' Owen has, however, since stated (Ann. Nat. Hist., Sept. 1862), that the two teeth belong to the third species of hyracothere.

HYRAX. See DAMAN.

HYRCA'NIA, a district of ancient Asia, bounded on the N. by the Caspian Sea and the Ochus (sometimes called, in consequence, Hyrcanum Mare), on the E. and S. by the Elburz Mountains, which separated it from Parthia, and on the W. by Media. It corresponds with the modern Mazanderán and Asterabad. With the exception of the coast districts, and the valleys among the hills, which produced corn, oil, and wine, it was not a fertile region; dense forests prevailed, through which roamed multitudes of savage animals, the Hyrcanian tiger in particular being celebrated. The inhabitants were of the same stem as the Parthians, and were noted for their wild and rude character.

He has

born in 1811 at Eisenstadt, in Hungary, studied at
HYRTL, JOSEPH, a distinguished anatomist, was
Vienna, and early acquired eminence both as a
scientific anatomist, and upon account of the extreme
beauty of his anatomical preparations. He became
Professor of Anatomy in Prague in 1837, and at
Vienna in 1845. Whilst yet a student, he enriched
the Anatomical Museum of Vienna with many pre-
parations. He has contributed not a little to the
progress of comparative anatomy, especially that of
fishes, and has made the anatomy of the ear a sub-
ject of very particular investigation.
written many books and
articles on the subjects
Lehrbuch der Anatomie
above indicated, of which
des Menschen (1847; 9th
the two principal are
edit. 1865), and Hand-
buch der Topographis-
chen Anatomie (1847;
5th edit. 1865). The
former is a text-book in
all German universities,

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HYRCA'NUS, the name of two Jewish highpriests and princes of the Asmonean family. 1. JOANNES H., son of Simon Maccabeus, who ruled 136-106 B. C., was at first tributary to the Syrians; but on the death of Antiochus, made himself independent, subdued the Samaritans on the north, and forced the Idumæans on the south to adopt the laws and customs of the Jews. He also concluded an alliance with the Romans, or rather confirmed that which his father Simon and has been translated had previously made; built the strong fortress into various languages. of Baris on the north-eastern angle of Mount H. formed a museum of Moriah, and extended his territories almost to the comparative anatomy at ancient limits of the Davidian monarchy. He is Vienna, and is rector of also supposed to have founded the Sanhedrim (q. v.). the academy there: Originally a Pharisee, he subsequently attached himself to the party of the Sadducees, who were a genus of plants of HY'SSOP (H880pus), anxious to keep on good terms with the Romans, the natural order Labiand who discountenanced the turbulent religious atæ, distinguished by patriotism of the Jewish masses. H. was, compara- four straight diverging tively speaking, a just and enlightened ruler, and stamens, and a calyx the country enjoyed great prosperity during his with 15 ribs. The known reign. He left five sons, two of whom, Aristobulus species are few. and Alexander, governed with the title of king. Common H. (H. offici2. HYRCANUS II., son of Alexander, and grandson nalis) is a native of the south of Europe and the East. of the preceding, was a feeble prince. On the It is found on the Alps of Austria. It is a halfdeath of his father (78 B. C.), he was appointed shrubby plant, about 1 feet high, the upper part

The

Common Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis).

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HYSTERIA-HYTHE SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY.

of the stems quadrangular, the leaves evergreen and lanceolate, the flowers in one-sided whorled racemes. The flowers are generally of a very beautiful blue. It has an agreeable aromatic odour. It has long been in cultivation for the sake of its leaves and young shoots, which are sometimes used for culinary purposes as a seasoning, but more generally in a dried state as a stomachic and carminative. A syrup made with them is a popular remedy for colds. The virtues of H. depend on a volatile oil. It is very doubtful what plant is the H. of the Bible. It has been supposed to be some species of Phytolacca (q. v.), as P. acinosa, a native of the Himalaya; but of late, strong arguments have been advanced in favour of the common Caper (q. v.).HEDGE H. is Gratiola officinalis. See GRATIOLA. HYSTERIA (so called from the Greek word hystera, the womb) is a disease which simulates so many other diseases, that it is not easy to describe it with the brevity which the limits of this work

necessitate.

The hysterical fit or paroxysm-the most marked form or manifestation of the disorder-is almost, though not exclusively, confined to women, and chiefly to young women. In a severe case, the trunk and limbs are strongly convulsed; the patient struggles violently, retracting and extending her legs, and twisting her body with such force that the aid of three or four strong persons is often required to prevent a slight and apparently feeble girl from injuring herself or others. The head,' says Dr Watson in his Lectures, 'is generally thrown backwards, and the throat projects; the face is flushed; the eyelids are closed and tremulous; the nostrils distended; the jaws often firmly shut; but there is no distortion of the countenance. If the hands are left at liberty, she will often strike her breast repeatedly and quickly, or carry her fingers to her throat, as if to remove some oppression there; or she will sometimes tear her hair, or rend her clothes, or attempt to bite those about her. After a short time, this violent agitation is calmed; but the patient lies panting, and trembling, and starting at the slightest noise or the gentlest touch; or sometimes she remains motionless during the remission, with a fixed eye; till all at once the convulsive movements are renewed; and this alternation of spasm and quiet will go on for a space of time that varies considerably in different cases; and the whole attack frequently terminates in an explosion of tears, and sobs, and convulsive laughter.'

In another less frequent form of the affection, the patient suddenly sinks down insensible and without convulsions: after remaining for some time in this state, with flushed cheeks, a turgid neck, and irregular breathing, she recovers consciousness, but remains for some time depressed in spirits and fatigued.

During the attack, especially in the first variety, the patient complains of uneasiness in the abdomen, and of a sensation as if a ball were rolling about, and rising first to the region of the stomach, and then to the throat, where she feels as if she were being choked. The abdomen is distended with wind, which moves with a loud rumbling sound along the intestinal canal, and is often discharged by eructation. Towards the close of the fit, but more commonly after it is over, a large quantity of pale limpid urine is discharged.

In many respects, this affection resembles Epilepsy (q. v.). According to Dr Marshall Hall, the most essential difference is this: that in hysteria, much as the larynx may be affected, it is never closed; while in epilepsy, it is closed. Hence, in the former, we have heaving, sighing inspiration; and in the latter, violent, ineffectual efforts at expiration.

The hysterical fit varies in duration from a quarter of an hour or less to many hours.

The persons who suffer from hysteria are commonly young women in whom the process of menstruation is disordered, and who are either naturally feeble, or have been debilitated by disease or want; and in patients of this kind, the hysteria, or the hysterical tendency, is apt to shew itself in mimicking so faithfully many of the most important dis eases, that the physician has often great difficulty in determining the true nature of the case. Among the disorders that may be thus simulated by hysteria are, inflammation of the peritoneum (or Peritonitis, q. v.), various forms of palsy, inflammation of the larynx (or Laryngitis, q. v.), inability to swallow (or Dysphagia), painful affection of the breast, disease of the hip and knee joints, and disease of the spine. Many of these cases of pseudo-disease come to a sudden favourable termination under some strong Those who are old mental or moral emotions. enough to recollect the morbid religious excitement that prevailed at the time when Irving and his followers believed in the 'unknown tongues,' can hardly fail to remember the remarkable, or, as many regarded it, the miraculous cure of a young paralytic lady, who was made to believe that if, on a certain day, she prayed for recovery with sufficient faith her prayer would be answered, and she would recover at once. She did so, and her palsy instantly disappeared.

This case, which was regarded by the believers in the movement as a direct answer to prayer, and as inaugurating a new era of miraculous cures, admits of easy and rational explanation by some psychologists. There are various instances on record where, in a similar way, an alarm of fire has instantly cured an hysterical paralysis that had lasted for years.

In the cases already noticed, the patient is not guilty of wilfully deceiving the physician; but in other instances they are found to practise the most remarkable impositions, pretending by various framis to be suffering from spitting of blood, from stone in the bladder, &c., or to be living without food of any

kind.

Hysteria is a very troublesome affection to deal with, because it is very readily induced by example, or, as Dr Watson terms it, is propagable by moral contagion. If, in a hospital ward or in a factory where many young women are congregated, one girl goes off in a fit, all the others who may happen to have a hysterical tendency will probably follow her example. In such cases, a decided order that the next girl who is attacked shall be treated with the actual cautery, or even with the cold affusion, wil often have a marvellous effect in checking the spread of the disorder.

During the fit, the treatment to be adopted is to prevent the patient from injuring herself, to looses her dress, and to admit an abundance of fresh cod air; to dash cold water upon the face and chest: and, if she can swallow, to administer a couple of ounces of the asafoetida mixture, or a drachm of the ammoniated tincture of valerian in a wine-glass of water. After the paroxysm is over, the patient should have an active purge, and the bowels should be kept properly open by aloetic aperients; and the shower-bath, preparations of iron, and tonic treatment generally should be adopted, and all abnormal bodily and mental excitement, such as late parties in hot rooms, novel-reading, &c., should be carefully

avoided.

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I

I

THE ninth letter in the alphabets of | 1st, A Life of Pythagoras, filled with prodigies, and Western Europe, was called by the evidently written against Christianity. 2d, An Greeks Iota, after its Shemitic name Exhortation to Philosophy (Protreptikoi Logoi eis (Heb. Jod), which signifies 'hand.' Philosophian), an ill-arranged introduction to Plato. The oldest forms of the letter, as 3d, On the Common Knowledge of Mathematics (Peri seen in the Phoenician and Samaritan, Koines Mathematikes Epistemes), full of fragments of have a rude resemblance to a hand with Pythagoras, Philolaus, and Archytas. 4th, On the three fingers; but by gradual simplifica- Arithmetical Introduction of Nicomachus. The 5th tion, the character came to be the smallest and 6th books are lost. The 7th, The Theology in the alphabet, and 'iota' or 'jot' is a of Arithmetic (Ta Theologoumena tes Arithmetikes); synonym for a trifle. The original sound of the letter, the 8th, The History of Music; the 9th, Geometry; and that which is considered its proper sound in all the 10th, On the Study of Heavenly Bodies. He languages except English, is that given to Eng. e also wrote a work on the Soul, commentaries on in me; with this power, it forms one of the funda- Plato and Aristotle, another on the complete mental vowels i, a, u (see A and LETTERS). What Chaldæan Philosophy, another on Beginnings, and is called the long sound of i in Eng. is really the one on Sacred Images, in which he affirmed that diphthong ai rapidly pronounced. The power that the gods resided in their statues. His celebrated the vowel i, followed by another vowel, has of work on the Mysteries (Peri Musterion) is, howturning the preceding consonant into a sibilant, has ever, disputed; it is supposed by Meiners not to been noticed in regard to the letter C (q. v.); be written by I.; but is asserted by Tennemann further instances may be seen in such French words to be the work of this author. It is drawn up as as rage, singe, from Lat. rabies, simia. In Lat., the answer of Abammon, a priest, to a letter there was but one character for the vowel i and the addressed to his pupil, Anebo, by Porphyry. It semi-vowel now denoted by the character j. See J. contains many Egyptian doctrines, and esoterical IA'MBIC VERSE, a term applied, in classic explanations derived from the Hermetic Books, the prosody, and sometimes in English, to verses conwritings of Bitys and others, mixed with Pythasisting of the foot or metre called Iambus, con- gorean and Neo-Platonic ideas. The style of I. sisting of two syllables, of which the first is short, is not careful, and inferior to Porphyry. I. is and the second long (-). Archilochus (q. v.) is supposed to have died at Alexandria, 333 A.D.— the reputed inventor of iambic verse. Several other writers of this name are known, as The English language runs more easily and naturally in this a younger philosopher of the Neo-Platonic school, metre than in any other. See METRE, VERSE. born at Apamea, and supposed to be a nephew of the preceding, praised by Libanius to Julian the Apostate; another, son of Himerius, mentioned by the same author, and a physician at Constantinople.

The stag |ǎt ēve | hăd drunk | his fill.

Lady of the Lake. IA'MBLICHUS, the proper name of several persons in classical antiquity, as—1. A king of Emesa, who, in the civil war, took the part of Antony.2. A Syrian freedman, who flourished at the end of the reign of Trajan and beginning of that of M. Aurelius (117-169 A.D.). He was instructed by a Babylonian in the language, manners, and literature of Babylon, and wrote the Babylonica, or Loves of Rhodanes and Sinonis, in 16 or 39 books, which has been preserved by Photius, c. xciv., and Leo Allatius. It is the oldest of the novels of antiquity which has reached the present day, but is not of any great merit either as to style or plot. 3. A philosopher who flourished under Constantine about 310 A. D., born of an illustrious and wealthy family at Chalcis, in Cole-Syria, pupil of Anatolius and Porphyry, and of the Neo-Platonic school of Plotinus, whose doctrines he extended. Little is known of his life; but he was followed by a numerous school, who listened with enthusiasm and respect, and who thought that he was inspired, had intercourse with the gods, and could divine and perform miracles. This gave him immense credit. His doctrines were a syncretic mixture of Pythagorean and Platonic ideas, mixed with superstition and magic, and the supposed manifestation of God by ecstasies, and a communication with the spiritual world by ceremonies. One of his great works; On the Choice of Pythagoras (Peri Aireseos Pythagorou) consisted of 10 books, of which there remains the

Eudocia, Violetum, p. 244; Eunapius, Vit. Philosoph., p. 20; Hebensbreit, De Iamblicho (Leip. 1744); Brucker, Hist. Crit. Phil., ii. p. 260; Iamblichus, a Gale, fo. (Ox. 1678).

IBA'RRA, or SAN MIGUEL DE IBARRA, a
town of Ecuador, South America, in the department
of Quito, and 60 miles north-east of the town of
that name. It is situated on the northern base of
the volcano of Imbabura, is well built, and carries
on manufactures of wool and cotton.
mated at about 10,000.
Pop. esti-

IBE'RIA. See HISPANIA and GEORGIA.
IBE'RIS. See CANDYTUFT.

I'BEX, the ancient name of the Bouquetin (q. v.), or Steinbock of the Alps; and now, according to some zoologists, of a genus of the goat family, or sub-genus of goat, having the horns flat, and marked with prominent transverse knots in front, whereas those of the true goats are compressed and keeled in front, and rounded behind. The species are all inhabitants of high mountainous regions. The I. of the Caucasus and the I. of the Pyrenees differ a little from the I. of the Alps, and from one another, but the differences may perhaps be regarded as those of varieties rather than of species.

The conventional ibex represented in Heraldry resembles the heraldic antelope in all respects, except that the horns are straight and serrated.

IBICUI-ICE.

IBICUI', or IBICUY, an important affluent of pools where it had been seen; besides which, it the Uruguay (q. v.).

I'BIS, a genus of birds of the family Ardeida, or, according to some ornithologists, of Scolopacida, and perhaps to be regarded as a connecting link between them. The bill is long, slender, curved, thick at the base; the point rather obtuse; the upper mandible deeply grooved throughout its length. The face, and generally the greater part of the head, and sometimes even the neck, are destitute of feathers, at least in adult birds. The neck is long. The legs are rather long, naked above the tarsal joint, with three partially united toes in front, and one behind; the wings are moderately long; the tail is very short. The SACRED I., or EGYPTIAN I. (I. religiosa), is an African bird, two feet six inches in length, although the body is little larger than that of a common fowl.-The GLOSSY I. (I. falcinellus) is a smaller species, also African, but migrating northwards into continental Europe, and occasionally seen in Britain. It is also a North American bird. Its habits resemble those of the sacred ibex. Its colour is black, varied with reddish brown, and exhibiting fine purple and green reflections. It has no loose pendent feathers.-The WHITE I. (I. alba), a species with pure white plumage, abounds on the coasts of Florida. Audubon saw multitudes on a low islet, and counted 47 nests on a single tree. The SCARLET I. (I. ruber) is a tropical American species, remarkable for its brilliant plumage, which is scarlet, with a few patches of glossy black.-The STRAW-NECKED I. (I. or Geronticus spinicollis) is a large Australian bird of fine plumage, remarkable for stiff naked yellow feather-shafts on the neck

The SACRED IBIS, one of the birds worshipped by the ancient Egyptians, and called by them Hab or Hib, and by the modern Egyptians Abu-Hannes (i. e., Father John), is a bird with long beak and legs, and a heart-shaped body, covered with black and white plumage. It was supposed, from the colour of its feathers, to symbolise the light and shade of the moon, its body to represent the heart; its legs described a triangle, and with its beak it performed a medical operation; from all which esoterical ideas it was the avatar of the god Thoth or Hermes (see HERMES), who escaped in that shape the pursuit of Typhon, as the hawk was that of Ra, or Horus, the sun. Its feathers were supposed to scare, and even kill, the crocodile. It appeared in Egypt at the rise, and disappeared at the inundation of the Nile, and was thought, at that time, to deliver Egypt from the winged and other serpents which came from Arabia in certain narrow passes. As it did not make its nest in Egypt, it was thought to be self-engendering, and to lay eggs for a lunar month. According to some, the basilisk was engendered by it. It was celebrated for its purity, and only drank from the purest water, and the most strict of the priesthood only drank of the

was fabled to entertain the most invincible love of Egypt, and to die of self-starvation if transported elsewhere. Its flesh was thought to be incorruptible after death, and to kill it was punishable with death Ibises were kept in the temples, and unmolested in the neighbourhood of cities. After death, they were mummied, and there is no animal of which so many remains have been found at Thebes, Memphis, Hermopolis Magna, or Eshmun, and at Ibiu or Ibeum, fourteen miles north of the same place. They are made up into a conical shape, the wings flat, the legs bent back to the breast, the head placed on the left side, and the beak under the tail; were prepared as other mummies, and wrapped up in linen bandages, which are sometimes plaited in patterns externally. At Thebes, they are found in linen bandages only; well preserved at Hermopolis in wooden or stone boxes of oblong form, sometimes in form of the bird itself, or the god Thoth; at Memphis, in conical sugar-loaf-shaped red earthenware jars, the tail downwards, the cover of conver form, cemented by lime. There appear to be two sorts of embalmed ibises-a smaller one of the size of a corncrake, very black, and the other black and white-the Ibis Numenius, or Ibis religiosa. This last is usually found sometimes with its eggs, and with its insect food, the Pimelia pilosa, Akis refleza and portions of snakes, in the stomach. It is said to resemble the I. of India rather than Africa. By the Jews, it was held to be an unclean bird.-Wikinson, Manners and Customs, v. 7, 217; Passoloegua Catalogue Raisonné, p. 255; Pettigrew, History of Mummies, p. 205; Horapollo, i. c. 30, 36.

IBRAHIM PASHA, the adopted son of Mohammed Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, was born in 1789, and gave the first proofs of his gallantry and generalship in 1819, in quelling the insur rection of the Wahabis. He afterwards subdued Sennaar and Darfur. He invaded the Mores at the head of an Egyptian army in 1825, with the view of reducing it under the power of Mohammed Ali; but the intervention of the great powers in the affairs of Greece compelled him to abandon this enterprise in 1828. Mohammed Ali having cor ceived the design of adding Syria to his dominions, Ibrahim crossed the Egyptian border with an army in October 1831, took Acre by storm, and quickly made himself master of the whole of Syria. A peace was concluded on 4th May 1833, the Turks not only consenting to give up Syria, but also making over Adana to Ibrahim personally, on a kind of lease. When war broke out again between Mohammed Ali and the sultan in 1839, Ibrahim was again successful, totally routing the Turks in the great battle of Nisib on 24th June. The interference of the great powers, eventually compelled him to relinquish all his Syrian conquests, and to return to Egypt, suffering, during his passage through the desert, the most terrible hardships and losses, whilst the attempt to elevate Egypt to complete inde pendence came to an end. In 1848, when the aged pacha had sunk into absolute dotage, L. went to Constantinople, and was installed by the Porte as Viceroy of Egypt; but on 9th November 1848, he died at Cairo. He was succeeded, not by any of his own children, but by Abbas Pasha, the favourite grandson of Mohammed Ali.

IBRAI'L. See BRAHILOV.

ICE is water in the solid form. It is specifically lighter than water which is just about to freeze, and therefore swims in it. Water, in becoming solid, expands about th of its volume or bulk. The formation of ice takes place generally at the surface of water. This is owing to the peculiarity, that

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