There is much difference of opinion among engineers as to the best profile or cross-section of breakwaters for deep-water harbours. It is asserted by Colonel Jones and others, that in deep water the waves are purely oscillatory, having no power of translation, and therefore incapable of exerting any force against the masonry. This, however, is incorrect, and calculated to lead to dangerous consequences. Were there no wind propelling the waves, and no current to interfere with their character, such a result might be true. This, however, is not the case, and all sea-works, in whatever depth of water they may be placed, will assuredly have to withstand impulsive action. Besides, it must be kept in view, that in order to reduce the expense of construction, it is essential, where the bottom is soft, to make the foundation a pile of loose rubble, or concrete blocks. It follows, from what has already been said, that the rubble, by shoaling the water in front of the work, will cause the waves to become waves of translation before they reach the vertical superstructure, which, assuming the waves to have been simply oscillatory, would have reflected them without breaking, and therefore without their having exerted an impulsive force upon the masonry. There is, however, no fixed rule as to the profile of any sea-work, which must necessarily depend upon a variety of local peculiarities, such as the nature of the bottom, and the size and quality of the materials. While a long, sloping breakwater does not offer the same amount of resistance to the waves, neither is it in itself so strong, for the weight resting on the face-stones is decreased in proportion to the sine of the angle of the slope. On the other hand, the tendency of the waves to produce horizontal displacement, supposing the direction of the impinging particles to be horizontal, is proportional to the cube of the sine of the angle of elevation of the wall. In tidal harbours, or those in shoal-water, it is admitted by all that the waves break, and therefore exert an impulsive force. Such works have to withstand (1.) The direct horizontal force which tends to remove the masonry; (2.) The vertical force acting upwards on projecting stones or protuberances, and against the lying beds of the stones; (3.) The vertical force acting downwards upon the talus wall, or passing over the parapet, and falling upon the roadway; and (4.) The back-draught, which is apt to remove the soft bottom in front of the work. The late Mr J. M. Rendel's plan of depositing rubble from open stages of pile-work is now universally used in the construction of deep-water piers. Sir J. Hawkshaw's method, adopted at Holyhead, consists of huge, irregular, undressed masses, set in hydraulic mortar, and resting upon pierres perdues. The commercial value of a harbour increases, according to Mr Stevenson, not simply as the depth of the water is increased, but as the cube of the depth. Hence the great expense which is willingly incurred for securing even a foot or two of additional depth. The greatest feat in deepening is at the Tyne, where Mr Ure, C.E., dredged out the channel to 20 feet at low-water all the way up to Newcastle. Scouring is also employed for increasing the depth, as by Sir. W. Cubitt at Cardiff, where 2500 tons of water a minute are let off. The late Mr Rendel's scheme for Birkenhead was based simply on the quantity liberated and the sectional area of the channel, and was therefore operative for any distance, and did not depend on the propelling head, or on the direction in which the water left the sluices, which conditions regulate ordinary scouring on the small scale, and which is efficacious for only short distances from the outlet.-Docks (q. v.) of various kinds are connected with harbours. Pine timber is admirably adapted for soft soils, when the exposure is not great, but owing to the ravages of the Teredo navalis and Limnoria terebrans in localities where there is no admixture of fresh water, it is soon destroyed. Greenheart, African oak, and bullet-tree are little affected by the worm, as 100 200 400 600 SCALL DE FEET. 800 Fig. 4.-Ramsgate Harbour: REPAIRING SLIP. S, sluices; A, jetty, with openings for passage of currents. In designing the ground-plan of harbours, some rules should be kept in view: (1.) The entrance should be always kept seawards of the works of masonry; (2.) Long straight piers are not so safe as those of horizontal curvature; (3.) There should be a good ‘loose,' or point of departure free of rocks or a lee shore; (4.) The relation of the width of entrance to the area of a harbour should be a matter of careful study, as upon this depends the tranquillity of the interior, or what has been called the reductive power of the harbour. Mr Stevenson's formula for the reductive power is as under: H=mersed in salt-water. Mr George Rennie's experiheight of wave at entrance; b = breadth of entrance; breadth of harbour at place of observation; D distance from mouth of harbour to place of observation; x = reduced height of wave at place of observation. B = shewn by experiments made in 1814 at the Bell Rock by Mr Robert Stevenson. Even limestone and sandstone are perforated by the Pholades and Saxicavæ. Metals also suffer from chemical action when im ments shewed that wrought-iron resists this action better than cast in the ratio of 8 to 1; while Mr Mallet's experiments shew that from to of an inch in depth of castings 1 inch thick, and about 1 of wrought-iron, will be destroyed in a century in HARBOURS-HARDENBERG. clean salt-water. A cannon-ball 4 inches in diameter became oxidised to the extent of of an inch in the century. The use of Portland cement may be regarded as the most important of recent improvements in harbour construction. Blocks of any size can be formed of sand, gravel, or stones, mixed with cement in the proportion of 1 of cement to 9 of the other materials. This will set readily in still water, and in a week will be nearly as hard as any ordinary sandstone. Sea walls of cement work can also be built continuously, so as to constitute a single monolithic mass. Reference may be made to Sir J. Rennie's book on Harbours, to that of Mr Thomas Stevenson on the same subject, and to the Minutes of Institution of Civil Engineers, passim. HARD LABOUR, an addition often made to the punishment of offences besides mere imprisonment. This practice is said to have been introduced by the statute of 5 Anne, c. 6. It is now firmly established in the United Kingdom; and by express statute, the power of adding hard labour to the punishment of imprisonment, has been given in most cases, both as to indictable offences and the more disgraceful offences which are punishable summarily. The kind of labour is prescribed by the rules of the jail or prison, where provision must be made of the proper materials for the purpose. Picking oakum, working the tread-mill, &c., form part of this labour; and in general, the number of hours for such labour, unless in case of sickness, is ten hours daily. He HARBOURS, or PORTS, in Law. In England, HARDENBERG, FRIEDRICH VON, better known as well as Scotland, the right to erect and hold ports by his literary pseudonym of NOVALIS, was the and havens is vested in the crown. Nevertheless, son of Baron von Hardenberg, and was born at this right may legally exist in the subject, provided the family residence in Prussian Saxony in 1772. the latter can prove that he has a charter or grant His father, then director of the Saxon saltfrom the crown, or has exercised the right from works, was a man of a religious disposition, and time immemorial, which presumes a charter or grant. a member of the Herrnhut communion, while his But even though an individual has a right to a mother is described as a pattern of noble piety particular port or harbour, he holds it charged with and Christian mildness.' Young H. inherited the or subject to the right of the public to make use of serious and reverential nature of his parents. it. The crown has also the superintending power studied at Leipsic and Wittenberg. After a brief of opening and shutting ports for the purpose of life, made beautiful by love, friendship, study, and prohibiting the importation or exportation of goods. literary activity, he died of consumption, 19th It is also a settled maxim that the duties or tolls March 1801, in the arms of his friend, Friedrich exacted should be reasonable and moderate. In Schlegel. His chief works are Lehrlinge zu Sais England, the grantee of a port is presumed to be (Disciples at Sais); a Physical Romance, 'conbound to repair it; but in Scotland, this obligation taining,' says Carlyle, 'no story or indication of only extends to compel the owner to apply the dues a story, but only poetised philosophical speeches, towards repairs so far as they will go. and the strangest shadowy allegorical allusions ;' Heinrich von Ofterdingen, intended, as he himself informs us, to be an 'apotheosis of poetry,' but which he was not spared to finish; and Hymnen an die Nacht (Hymns to the Night). H., says Carlyle, is the most ideal of idealists.' A profound, beautiful, but indefinite aspiration breathes through all the fragments he has left us. What he lacks is force, activity, and common-sense vigour of understanding. H. belonged to the romantic school of German literature, but he took no part in the controversies of his friends. His Sämmtliche Schriften were published in 1802 (5th ed. 1837) by Tieck and F. Schlegel, the former of whom prefixed a biography. See Carlyle's Miscellaneous Essays. In most cases, the powers of the common law have been insufficient to regulate the progressive wants of the public as regards harbour accommodation; and various acts of parliament have been passed for the purpose of authorising harbours to be constructed, or extended and improved, and for exacting dues or tolls for the purpose of repaying the expenses. In 1847, a general Consolidation Act (10 Vict. c. 27) was passed for the United Kingdom, providing a code for the regulation of the procedure and conduct of all bodies, commissioners, &c., charged with making and improving harbours, docks, and piers. The duties of such bodies are there defined in all their details, as well as the mode of levying and collecting the tolls which they are empowered to levy. Various local acts are also from time to time passed to meet the peculiar wants of localities. The principle of all these acts is, that the commissioners are empowered to make the works, and, by way of paying for the expense, to levy a small toll on those who use the harbour. HA'RBURG, an old town and rising seaport of Hanover, in the province of Lüneburg, is situated four and a half miles south of Hamburg, on the southmost branch of the Elbe, in a marshy district at the foot of a wooded chain of hills. It is surrounded with walls, and has a fortified castle. Sugar-refining and tanning are extensively carried on, as well as manufactures of woollens, linens, and hosiery. Its transit-trade with Hamburg and the countries south of the Elbe, which has long been considerable, has recently received a favourable impetus by the construction of the Hanover and Harburg Railway, and by the deepening and enlarging of its harbour, which can now accommodate 500 vessels, and admits of landing cargoes at the wharfs. The passenger-traffic between H. and Hamburg is carried on by steamers, of which from four to six arrive and depart daily. H. is a place of holiday resort for the Hamburgers. Pop. (1871) 16,506. HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST, PRINCE VON, Leipsic, Göttingen, and Metzlau, and during 1776— HARDERWIJK-HARDINGE. celebrated monastery of Citeaux, and one of the HARDING, STEPHEN, the third abbot of the most remarkable religious reformers of the 12th century. Of his parentage and youthful history, little is known beyond the fact that he was of a noble occurred in the middle ages, he undertook a English family, and in early life a soldier. Under one of those religious impulses which so frequently pilgrimage to Rome. He subsequently entered the French monastery of St Claude de Joux, where he life, that he was chosen abbot of the monastery was so distinguished by his strict and exemplary summoned him to his head-quarters at Frankfurt- she sent to H. to acquaint him with the state on-the-Maine as administrator of the army. Early of affairs in England. H. being of an easy and in 1795, he was sent to Basel, where, on the 5th self-indulgent disposition, allowed two years to April, he concluded a peace between Prussia and pass before taking any steps to assert his rights. the French republic. On the accession of Frederick- Roused at last by his mother's remonstrances, he, William III. in 1797, H. was recalled to Berlin, and in 1039, equipped a fleet and army, and was about was intrusted with the management of all foreign to sail for England to dispossess the usurper, when affairs. In 1804, he became first Prussian minister he was met by a deputation of English nobles, who on the resignation of Haugwitz, and in this capa- informed him of the death of Harold, and offered city endeavoured to preserve neutrality between him the crown. H. reigned in England till 1042, France and England. But when the French troops when, after a quiet reign, he died of apoplexy, attacked Anspach, he changed his policy, and induced by his gluttonous habits. With H. ended addressed a strong remonstrance to Marshal Duroc. the Danish line in England. After the victory of Napoleon at Austerlitz, Prussia was compelled to enter into arrangements with Napoleon, H. was deprived of his office, and Haugwitz, who was friendly to the French, returned to power. In 1806, Prussia was again led to declare war, and after the fatal battle of Jena, affairs at the desire of the Emperor Alexander. H. accepted for some time the portfolio of foreign In 1810, he was appointed chancellor of state. Prussia was at this period in a deplorable condition, humbled in the very dust before France; nevertheless, H. was sagacious enough to perceive that the power of Napoleon was on the wane. He laboured ardently to create a national feeling-a of Bêze, with a view to the reformation of its patriotic thirst for revenge. The victories of the discipline, which had become much relaxed. From British troops in the Spanish peninsula, and the this monastery he was transferred to that of disasters that overwhelmed in ruin Napoleon's Citeaux, where, on the death of Alberic in 1109, he vast army in Russia, greatly assisted him in his he here enforced had such an effect in deterring was elected abbot. The rigour of observance which efforts, and he had the satisfaction of beholding novices from entering the new order, that at first them crowned with success. His exertions were unwearied; he subscribed to the Peace of Paris, grave fears were entertained for its stability; but June 1814; and was soon after raised to the rank of Stephen, placing his trust in the good cause which prince by his sovereign. He accompanied the allied he had undertaken, persevered in the cause of sovereigns to London, took part in the proceedings reform; and he was rewarded, in 1113, by the of the congress at Vienna, and in the treaties of accession of St Bernard and thirty other youths, Paris (1815). In 1817, he reorganised the council whose eminent virtue gave such an impulse to the of state, of which he was appointed president. He institute, that in a short time the number of claimwas also present at the congresses of Aix-la-ants for admission compelled him to found several Chapelle, Carlsbad, and Vienna, and drew up the new Prussian system of imposts. During a tour through the north of Italy, he was taken ill at Pavia, and died at Genoa, 26th November 1822. The services rendered by H. to his country were undoubtedly great; to him Prussia is mainly indebted for the improvements in her army system, the abolition of serfdom, of the privileges of the nobles, and of a multitude of trade corporations, besides the complete reform of her educational system. The MSS. of his memoirs of the period from 1801 to the peace of Tilsit, were sealed up by Frederick-William III., who deposited them in the archives of the state, and forbade them to be opened before the year 1850. They have not yet been published. HARDERWIJK, a seaport and fishing-town of the Netherlands, in the province of Guelderland, is situated on the eastern shore of the Zuider Zee, 31 miles east of Amsterdam. It was at one time a Hanse town, is fortified after an ancient fashion, and has a spacious harbour, in which vessels engaged in the East India trade are fitted out. Pop. 5700. HARDICANUTE, king of England, son of Canute the Great by Emma of Normandy, the widow of Ethelred II. At the time of his father's death H. was in Denmark, and the throne of England was usurped by Harold his younger brother, Emma, however, preserving her son's authority over Wessex. In this state matters remained for some time, till Alfred, Emma's younger son by Ethelred, invaded the kingdom; but the invaders being annihilated by Earl Godwin, Harold's general, Emma was obliged to seek refuge at Bruges, whence Abbot new convents, and especially that of Clairvaux, he drew up, in conjunction with St Bernard and Cistercian institute. See Mabillon Annal. Benedictin When HARDINGE, VISCOUNT (HENRY HARDINGE), field-marshal and commander-in-chief of the British army, the third son of the Rev. H. Hardinge, rector of Stanhope, in the county of Durham, was born March 30, 1785, and was gazetted as ensign before brigade command before his 25th year, and his he had attained his 15th year. He obtained a foreign grade was commuted, shortly afterwards, for British rank, after which he was attached to the Portuguese army from 1809 to 1813, in the capacity of deputy quarter-master-general. Napoleon effected his memorable return from Elba, H. joined the allied armies in Belgium, and was appointed by the Duke of Wellington commissioner at the Prussian head-quarters. He lost his hand at Ligny, and was thus unable to participate in the crowning victory of Waterloo. In 1826, he entered parliament; and in 1828 succeeded Lord Palmer. ston in the government of the Duke of Wellington, as secretary at war. He next filled the office of secretary of Ireland. In 1844, he accepted the high post of governor-general of India, which he HARDNESS-HARE. filled until 1847. When the great Sikh war broke out, he hurried to the north-western frontier of India, and served as second in command under Lord Gough during the sanguinary and hard-fought battles of Moodkee, Ferozeshah, and Sobraon. After the pacification of Lahore, his services were rewarded by a viscounty, the East Indian Company granting him a pension of £5000, and parliament voting him an annuity of £3000, for himself and his next two successors. On the death of the Duke of Wellington in 1852, H. was appointed commanderin-chief of the British army, a distinguished post which he filled during the eventful epoch of the Russian war, and which he only resigned a few months before his death. In October 1855, he was advanced to the rank of field-marshal. He died September 24, 1856, at his seat, South Park, near Tunbridge, Kent. HARDNESS, SCALE OF. The hardness of a body is measured by its power of scratching other substances. Variations in the degree of hardness presented by different crystallised bodies often furnish a valuable physical sign by which one mineral may be readily distinguished from others closely resembling it. Mohs selected ten well-known minerals, each succeeding one being harder than the preceding one, and thus formed the Scale of Hardness, which has been generally adopted by subsequent mineralogists. Each mineral in the following table is scratched by the one that follows it, and consequently by all the subsequent ones, and the hardness of any mineral may be determined by reference to the types just selected. Thus, if a body neither scratches nor is scratched by felspar, its hardness is said to be 6; if it should scratch felspar but not quartz, its hardness is between 6 and 7-the degrees of hardness being numbered from 1 to 10. The figures on the right indicate the number of known minerals of the same or nearly the same degree of hardness as the substance opposite to which they stand : HARDOUIN, JEAN, was born in 1645 at Quimper, in Brittany, where his father followed the trade of a bookseller. H. received his first education in the schools of the Jesuits, and being received into that order at the age of 20, completed his studies in Paris. On the death of Père Garnier in 1683, H. was appointed librarian of the college of Louis le Grand, in which office he enjoyed full leisure for the literary pursuits in which he delighted, and in which his extravagances have acquired for him a notoriety almost without any parallel in the annals of literary eccentricity. Dupin places him among the very first scholars of his learned brotherhood. In a spirit of literary scepticism which it is difficult to look upon as serious, he maintained, not only that the entire body of classical literature, with the exception of in Latin, Pliny's Natural History, Virgil's Georgics, the comedies of Plautus, and Horace's Satires, and in Greek, Homer's Iliad, and Herodotus's History, was 224 falsely ascribed to the authors whose various names it bears, but that it was all the production of the monks of the 13th century! In the same sceptical spirit, he rejected as spurious all the reputed remains of ancient art, together with the inscriptions and coins which are attributed to classical times; nay, he extended the same scepticism to the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, and even to the Greek text of the New, the original language of which he held to have been Latin! Opinions so extravagant naturally called forth the reprobation of the authorities of his order. He was required to retract them; and there is some reason to believe, that they were put forward by him rather from a love of paradox and a morbid desire of notoriety, than from any serious conviction of their probability. Nevertheless, with all this extravagance, the erudition of Père H. was beyond dispute, and most of his works are of great historical and critical value. His edition of Pliny (5 vols. 4to, Paris, 1689) is a prodigy of learning and industry. Of his remaining works, the most valuable is his great Collectio Conciliorum (12 vols. folio), a work of great learning and utility, which has the rare advantage of possessing one of the best indexes extant; a commentary on the New Testament in folio; several volumes on the study of numismatics and chronology; and a vast number of dissertations and essays in the Mémoires de Trevoux. He died at the age of 83, in the convent of his order in Paris, September 3, 1729. HARDWARE, a commercial term applied to the commoner articles made of iron, copper, or brass, such as locks, keys, anvils, grates, shovels, &c. The great hardware manufactures of this country are at Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Walsall, Willenall, Sheffield, &c. The extent of the trade of these places is enormous; the value of the exports of hardware alone amounting to millions. The returns for the year 1871 give for hardwares, including cutlery, £4,000,000. See IRON. HARD-WOODED TREES are forest-trees of comparatively slow growth, producing compact, hard, and valuable timber, as oak, ash, elm, chestnut, walnut, beech, birch, &c. From these, willows, elders, poplars, &c., are distinguished as soft-wooded trees. Neither term is extended to firs, pines, cedars, or other coniferous trees, the wood of which is of a peculiar and very different character. HARE (Lepus), a genus of rodent quadrupeds, of which there are many species very similar to each other. The Linnean genus Lepus now forms the and Lagomys, and of which a peculiar characteristic family Leporida, which includes the genera Lepus is the presence of two small incisors immediately behind the ordinary rodent incisors of the upper jaw, so that these teeth seem to be double. The molar-teeth, six on each side above and five below, are transversely grooved, being formed of two vertical plates soldered together. All the animals of this family feed exclusively on vegetable food, and chiefly on herbage, although they are also fond of grain, roots, and the bark of trees. Their fore-fect have five toes, their hind-feet four; the soles are hairy. Their fur is soft; the colours mostly gray or brown, the alpine and arctic species becoming white in winter. The COMMON H. (L. timidus) is widely distributed over Europe and the northern and central parts of Asia. The IRISH H. (L. Hibernicus) has, however, recently been described as a distinct species. It differs from the common H. in its rounder head, shorter ears, and shorter limbs; also in having the fur composed only of one kind of hair, short and soft, with none of the long blacktipped hairs which are mixed with this in the 241 HARE-HARFLEUR. common species. The fur, therefore, is of no value. hares can only be bought from a licensed dealer, and The common H. is not found in Ireland. Notwith-sold by licensed persons. The owner of enclosed standing the character of timidity usually ascribed Common Hare (Lepus timidus). to the H., it is really a pugnacious animal, and displays no little courage in encounters with those of its own race, or with animals of nearly equal powers. It has been an object of the chase from a very early period. Xenophon, in his Cynegeticus, gives an enthusiastic description of the sport. Concerning the hunting of the H., see COURSING. Being evidently designed to seek safety from enemies by fleetness, the H., however well supplied with food, never becomes fat. It ordinarily lies quiet in its form during the day, and goes in quest of food in the evening and morning. Where, through game preserving, it is abundant, it does no little damage to crops. It is a prolific animal, although not nearly so much so as the rabbit. The female produces from two to five at a birth. The young (leverets) are born covered with hair, and with the eyes open.-The VARYING H. or ALPINE H. (L. variabilis), which inhabits the mountains both of the north and south of Europe, and is found on those of Scotland and of Cumberland, is remarkable for the change of colour which it undergoes, without change of hair, on the approach of winter. Ordinarily of a bluish-gray colour, it becomes of a shining white, the change beginning with the feet, and extending upwards, terminating with the back. This, which in many places is called the Blue H., is about equal in size to the common H., but has shorter limbs and ears, and is less swift.-In the arctic regions both of the Old and New Worlds, the ARCTIC H. or POLAR H. (L. glacialis) abounds. It is entirely white in winter, brownish-gray in summer, has long soft fur on the belly, and fine thick fur on the back; is considerably larger than the common H., and spends the whole year without hybernation, even in Melville Island, and similar cold desolate regions; lichens and mosses probably affording it the greater part of its food.-North America produces a number of other species of H., of which some inhabit the swamps of the southern states.-India has a H. (L. ruficaudatus) very similar to the common H.; other species are found in other parts of Asia, Egypt, the Cape of Good Hope, &c. The fur of the H. is used for felting for making hats and other purposes. HARE, in point of English law, is one of the wild animals called Game (q. v.), and is specially protected by the game-laws for the benefit of the owners of land. There is no close season as to hares, which may therefore be lawfully killed by a licensed sportsman all the year round. Being game, land, and also the tenant, if otherwise entitled by his lease to kill hares, may do so without a license. So those who hunt them with greyhounds or beagles require no license. All others require a license. To kill hares unlawfully by night in a warren, or place kept for breeding hares, is now a misdemeanour by 24 and 25 Vict. 96, s. 17; to kill them elsewhere, is only a misdemeanour when the third offence is committed. In Scotland, the law is substantially the same, except that the killing of hares unlawfully by night is only an offence punishable summarily, unless it is a third offence, when it becomes indictable. In Ireland, there is a close season, when hares cannot be killed-viz., between the first Monday in November and the first Monday in July following. See Paterson's Game-laws of the United Kingdom. HAREBELL, or BLUEBELL (Campanula rotundifolia), the most common of all the British species of Bellflower (see CAMPANULA), growing abundantly in dry and hilly pastures, on waysides, &c.; flowers in summer and autumn. It is common in most Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia). parts of Europe, and even to the extreme north. It is everywhere a favourite from its beauty and gracefulness, and is the subject of many allusions in poetry. It is a perennial plant, with a slender stem 6-14 inches high, sometimes bearing only one flower, but more generally a loose panicle of a few drooping flowers, on very slender stalks; the flowers sometimes white, but generally bright blue, bell-shaped, and fully half an inch long. The juice of the flowers yields a fine blue colour, and may be used as ink. HARE'S-EAR (Bupleurum), a genus of plants of the natural order Umbellifera, having compound umbels of yellow flowers, and generally simple leaves. The leaves of the most common British species, B. rotundifolium, embrace the stem and are roundish oval. This plant, which grows in cornfields in the chalk districts, is the Thorough-wax of the old herbalists, and was once in repute as a vulnerary, but has fallen into disuse. The species of H. are numerous, and are natives of temperate climates in most parts of the world. HARFLEUR (called in the middle ages Hareflot), a small town of France, in the department of |