will always ensure attention. As a theologian, doctor sacraments, preach. &c. See Hierarchy, and GrdPriestley, who followed his convictions wherever they nation) Am ng the Hindus, the sacerdotal caste led him, passed through all changes, from Calvinism styled Bramins form the highest caste. (See Ben to a Unitarian system, in some measure his own; mins, and Caste.) In the systems of Lamaism and Mobut, to the last, remained a zealous opposer of inside-hammedanism, the dalai-lama and the caliph are the lity. Of his theological and controversial produc- heads of the priesthood. (See Lama, and Caliph. tions, those most generally esteemed are his Institutes Priests, Non-juring, or Pretres Insermentés. The of Natural and Revealed Religion, and Letters to a schism in the French church, produced by the enphilosophical Unbeliever. He also wrote many stitution civile du clergé of the 12th of July, 1790. works of practical divinity. His works amount to was connected with the old relations of that churet about seventy volumes, or tracts, in octavo. (See with the Roman see and the French government, his Life, by himself and his son.) and of these latter with each other. Louis IX. by his pragmatic sanction (1208), defended the rights of election against the see of Rome, and restricted the pecuniary exactions of the latter. By the corcordate of Leo X. with Francis I. (1516), the right of appointing the bishops and prelates was secured to the king, and that of receiving the annates, to the pope; at the same time, an opportunity was afforded to the nobles, by requiring of them a shorter period of preparation, to exclude the learned class, who were really the clergy, from the higher and more profitable ecclesiastical offices. By a royal edict of 1600, this exclusion of the learned was completed, and those abuses introduced, which, in connexion with the licentiousness and immorality of some of the higher clergy, contributed to produce the revolution. The immense revenues of the Gallican church were not applied to spiritual purposes, but merely to supply to the younger sons of nobles the means of leading dissipated and dissolute lives, while the real labourers in the church-the priests were obliged to live, for the most part, on very moderate, and often scanty incomes. The declaration of the French clergy of 1682 (denying the personal infallibility of the pope and his power to interfere in secular affairs), the Jansenist controversy, and the bull Unigenitus (1713), had introduced divisions into the church. It was no wonder, then, that when, in 1788, the government itself called the people to a great political reform, the church should have been one of the first objects of attention. The first step was to declare the possessions of the cherch national property, which after supplying the neces sary wants of the church, was to be employed for purposes of state. The relations of the state to the Catholic church were afterwards entirely charged by the civil constitution of the clergy above men tioned. The 135 bishoprics, which were of very unequal extent, were reduced to eighty-three, one for each department, and the whole country was divided into ten archbishoprics. The ten archbishops were to have their seats at Rouen, Rheims, Besançon, Rennes, Paris, Bourges, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Aix, and Lyons. The bishops were to officiate as the curates of their sees; the priests and bishops were to be chosen by the people; the canonical consecration was to be performed by the bishop or archbishop (the archbishop being consecrated by the oldest bishop in the archbishopric). The pope, as the visible head of the church, was merely to be informed after the choice had taken place, without any confirmation from him being necessary; and sil the bishops, both those in office at the time and those who should thereafter be chosen, were to take an oath " to watch over the congregations committed to them, to be faithful to the nation, the las, and the king, and to support the constitution, which should be framed by the national assembly and ac cepted by the king." Most of the old prelates and many of the priests refused to take this oath. Such refusal was declared equivalent to a resignation, and others were chosen to supply their places. The non-juring clergy formed one of the most powerful means of opposing republicanism in France; they

PRIESTS; officers called by choice or birth to perform religious rites, and to inculcate and expound religious dogmas. Among the ancient pagan nations, all that was dignified and venerable, that deserved respect and obedience, that stood nearer to the Divinity than the common mass of mortals, was associated with the idea of the priestly office. The patriarch of the primitive world was at once the king and the priest of his family; and when the state was developed from the family, the royal and priestly dignity still continued, for a long time, to be united in the same person. (See Melchisedek, and Patriarchs.) But these offices became separated in those states of antiquity which owed their existence to the ascendency of single heroes or conquering tribes; and by the side of the regal dignity and sovereignty a sacerdotal order, which in some countries was elective, in others hereditary, grew up, and by the reputation of superior wisdom, and secret communion with the gods (whence the priests were also honoured as magicians and physicians), inspired the mind with awe. In the states of Western Asia, in Egypt, Greece, and Rome, the priests were therefore public councillors, and instruments of government. Their original office was to bring down divine things to the conception of men (the origin of most of the mythuses may therefore be referred to their explanations of symbols and emblems), and to solemnize the public worship of the gods by sacrifices, prayers, and religious pomp (mysteries). Instruction and the interpretation of symbolical doctrines ceased to be a part of their office when the mythical religious system came to an end; and when the poets, rhetoricians, and philosophers assumed the office of interpreters of the mythuses, the sole business of the priests became the performance of the religious rites. The Mosaic constitution exhibits them in this stage of development, and, while it clothes them with great power, reserves the spiritual part of religion to the prophets. (See High Priest, and Theocracy.) The posterity of Aaron, the hereditary priests of the Hebrews, became, therefore, mere mechanical agents in the daily repetition of the temple service. It fared no better with the Roman Catholic clergy when they adopted the rigour and formalities of the Jewish priesthood, with the view of obtaining the same privileges, and exacting from the Christian laity the same contributions (e. g. tithes) which the Levites had enjoyed. Such a tendency was altogether foreign from the Founder of Christianity and its apostles. The primitive Christian communities had, indeed, teachers, whose duty it was to expound the divine word, and to exercise a paternal care over their disciples; but not to perform pompous ceremonies, nor to rule over the conscience. Some of these teachers were called presbyters, whence the term priest, in our language, is derived (see Presbyterians); but they were by no means priests in the sense of the word which prevails at present. In the Catholic church, priests are that order of the clergy who perform the holy office of the mass, and in some of The Protestant churches, those who administer the,

PRIMARY. See Ornithology. PRIMARY ROCKS. See Geology. PRIMATE (primas regni, head of the kingdom); in the European states, the chief archbishop in the state, and the first subject of the realm; in the Catholic church, the primate is also perpetual legate of the pope, and has a sort of spiritual jurisdiction over the other archbishops. There are also primates of provinces. The archbishop of Toledo is primate of Spain; the archbishop of Braga is styled primate of Portugal, although he is actually inferior to the patriarch of Lisbon. In England, the archbishop of Canterbury is styled primate of all England, and the archbishop of York primate of Eng-ture in males seems anciently to have prevailed only land. In the Protestant Irish church, the archbishop among the Jews. The first born in the patriarchal of Armagh is primate of all Ireland; the archbishop ages had a superiority over his brethren, and in the of Dublin, primate of Ireland; the archbishop of absence of the father, was priest of the family. Cashel, primate of Munster, and the archbishop of Among the Jews, he had a double portion of the Tuam, primate of Connaught. In the German inheritance; in the same manner, as by the laws of empire, the archbishop of Salzburg was primate of Henry I. in England, the eldest son had the capital Germany. In France, the archbishop of Lyons is | fee, or principal feud of his father's possessions, and primate of France; that of Bourges, primate of no other pre-eminence; and as the eldest daughter Aquitania, and that of Rheims, of Normandy. In | had the principal mansion when the estate descended Hungary, the archbishop of Gran is primate; in Poland, the archbishop of Gnesen,

after his death.

PRINCIPAL, in criminal law. See Accessary.
PRINTER'S INK. See Ink.

right to the throne. Thus the princes of the houses | the subject, can a very distinct or satisfactory conOrleans and Bourbon Condé were formerly princes clusion be attained. Many claims have been adof the blood. Louis XIV. also declared his sons duced, but the real question seems to lie between by his mistresses La Valiere and Montespan princes those of Laurence Coster of Haerlem, and John of the blood; but the dignity was taken from them Guttenburg or Geinsfleisch of Mentz, all others being groundless or puerile. The advocates for Haerlem maintain, chiefly on the authority of Hadrian Junius, who flourished about a hundred years after PRINTING, in a general sense, is the art of the introduction of the art, that Laurence Jansoen, making impressions of figures, characters, or letters, | under the name of Coster (i. e. sacristan in the with ink, upon paper, vellum, silk, or any similar great parochial church at Haerlem) as early as substance; in a more particular sense, it is the 1430, not only practised the art of cutting on wooden term applied to that art by which, with single move- tables, but made impressions with moveable types able letters or types, any piece of literary composi- of wood, and afterwards of lead and tin. But no tion is converted into a book. Printing, in its ex- undoubted specimen of his work has come down to tended sense, embraces wood and copperplate en-us, although the Speculum Humane Salvationis is graving, lithography, and even the decoration of said to be his; neither are his claims, on the whole, calicoes; but as these branches of the art have also satisfactorily established as those of Guttenburg. ready been treated of under their proper heads, we have only here to consider Printing in its most commonly received meaning, that is, Typography, or the art of printing paper with moveable metal types.

tedious, and expensive method of manual transcription by letter-press printing. Guttenburg was a native of Mentz, but his early life was spent at Strasburg, and it is doubtful whether it was in the former or latter city that he first prosecuted his art. (See a notice of his life in this Encyclopedia, under Guttenburg.) The probability is, that he first con

The best that can be said of him is, that he was, in all probability, an ingenious wood-engraver, who carried the practice of his art to a higher state of perfection than most of his contemporaries, and who even went so far as to employ separate wooden types The first approximation to this most important in the construction of broadsides for alphabets, breart,-which has changed, more than any other viaries, &c. To Guttenburg, according to the human invention, the moral condition of the world, opinion of the most numerous and competent judges, -was undoubtedly made by the Chinese. At what belongs the credit of having first employed movetime their style of printing was introduced, it is im-able metal types in the production of books-of havpossible to determine; they themselves claim aning, in short, been the first to supplant the ancient, antiquity for it long before the commencement of the Christian era, and it is denied by none, even of the Christian writers, that it was fully established in China early in the tenth century, nearly 500 years before printing was contemplated in Europe. The Chinese method of printing, which has remained unaltered for ages, is as follows: The work intended to be printed is transcribed upon thin, transpar-ceived the idea of his invention, and made a few ent paper; each written sheet is glued, with its face downward, upon a smooth block of wood; the engraver cuts the wood away in all those parts upon which he finds nothing traced, and thus leaves the transcribed parts ready for printing. Thus, there must be as many blocks as there are pages in a book, and these blocks are not of the least use in printing any other work. The system, however, has one advantage, but no other, in common with stereotype, that by it impressions of a work may be thrown off just as required.

experiments of it at Strasburg, but that it was at Mentz, where, with the aid of Peter Schoeffer of Gronsheim, he first brought the art into practical use. Guttenburg left Strasburg for Mentz in 1445,* and from that period may be dated the commencement of the art of printing, although it has been proved that moveable letters in wooden blocks must have been used earlier than 1442. In 1449, Guttenburg connected himself with a rich citizen in Mentz, named John Fust (Faustus), who advanced the capital necessary to prosecute the business of printBlock-printing in Europe, with single pieces of ing. Soon after (probably in 1453) Peter Schoeffer, wood, can be traced back as far as the thirteenth who afterwards became Fust's son-in-law, was taken century. The introduction of playing-cards early into copartnership, and to him belongs the merit in the fourteenth century, is supposed to have given of inventing matrices for casting types, each inan impetus to the art of wood-engraving. From dividual type having hitherto been cut in wood or single figures, the professors of the art came to en- metal. This discovery is one of the most invaluable grave historical or biblical subjects, some with a in the history of printing, and so much did it facilitext or explanation subjoined, others without a text. tate the art, that Schoefier, before his death, which Of the former of these, the oldest and most cele- is supposed to have taken place about 1492, printed brated extant is the Speculum Humanæ Salvationis; upwards of fifty works. The oldest work, of any of the latter the Biblia Pauperum. (See a descrip- considerable size, printed in Mentz with cast letters, tion and fac-similes of both in Horne's Bibliogra- by Guttenburg, Faustus, and Schoeffer, finished phy.) These books of Images, as they were called, about 1455, is Guttenburg's Latin Bible, which is may be considered as the earliest attempts at book-called the Forty-two lined Bible, because in every printing in Europe; and although there is little likelihood that the practice of the art was derived from China, they resembled Chinese books in one essential point, each leaf being printed from single blocks of wood. The great discovery was yet to be made, which was to emancipate the art from its fixed thraldom, and give it a ductility and power beyond all previous conception-the discovery, namely, of the practicability and utility of adopting moveable types.

It is a matter of much dispute to whom is due the merit of making this, in its results, unparalleled discovery. Nor, after all that has been written on

full column it has forty-two lines. Faustus, having separated from Guttenburg in 1456, and, by means of a loan of 2020 florins, having obtained his printing-press for his own use, undertook, in connection with Peter Schoeffer, greater typographical works, in which the art was carried to higher perfection. Faustus was particularly engaged in the printing of the Latin and German Bible, by the copying of which the monks had hitherto gained considerable sums. As they could not understand this astonishing

pancy of dates, and we can only adopt those which appear

* Among the authorities we consult, we find much discre

best authenticated.

multiplication of copies, and their still more astonish- method. Words were subjected to frequent abbreing uniformity, they ascribed the whole work to viations, which in time grew so numerous and difSatan. When, therefore, Faustus went to Paris ficult to be understood, that there was a necessity with his Bibles (the first copies of which, bearing of writing a book to teach the manner of reading date, were printed in 1462), for the purpose of sell them. Periods were distinguished by no other ing them there, such an outcry was raised against points than the double or single one, that is, the him by the monks, that he was obliged to leave the colon and full-point; but a little after there was an city in haste; and this circumstance probably gave oblique stroke introduced, thus /, which answered rise to the well-known tradition that the devil had the purpose of our comma. No capital letters were carried him off. Other authorities, however, say, used to begin a sentence, or for proper names of that the legend of the Devil and Doctor Faustus is men or places. Blanks were left for the places of of older date than the invention of printing. In titles, initial letters, and other ornaments, in order 1466, Faustus made a second journey to Paris, and to have them supplied by the illuminators, whose died there of the plague, upon which Peter Schoef- ingenious art, though in vogue before, and at that fer continued the printing business alone, at Mentz. time, did not long survive the masterly improveAfter the separation of Guttenburg and Faustus, ments made by the printers in this branch of their the former had found means to procure a new print-art. These ornaments were exquisitely fine, and ing-press, and had struck off many works, of which curiously variegated with the most beautiful colours, the most remarkable is the Astrological and Medi- and even with gold and silver; the margins, likecal Calendar (in folio, 1457), considered the first wise, were frequently charged with variety of known work printed with the date annexed. figures of saints, birds, beasts, monsters, flowers, &c., which had sometimes relation to the contents of the page, though often none at all: such embellishments were very costly; but for those who could not afford a great price, there were inferior ornaments, which could be done at a much easier rate. The name of the printer, place of his residence, &c. were either wholly neglected, or put at the end of the book, not without some pious ejaculation or doxology. The date was likewise omitted, or involved in some crampt circumstantial period, or else printed either at full length, or by numerical letters, and sometimes partly one and partly the other; thus, one thousand CCCC and Ixxiiii, &c. but all of them at the end of the book. There were no variety of characters, no intermixture of Roman and Italic; these are of later invention; pages were continued in a Gothic letter of the same size throughout. 200 or 300 were at first esteemed a large impression; though, upon the encouragements received from the learned, their numbers increased in proportion. About 1469-70, alphabetical tables At the invention of printing, the character of type of the first words of each chapter were introduced, employed was the old Gothic or German. The as a guide to the binder. Catch-words (now geneRoman type was first introduced by Sweynheim and rally abolished) were first used at Venice, by VinPannartz, at Rome, and the Italic by Aldus. Schoe-deline de Spire. The name and place of the invenfier, in his edition of Cicero de officiis, produces, for the first time, some Greek character, rudely executed, but the earliest complete Greek work was a grammar of that language, printed at Milan, in 1476. The Pentateuch, which appeared in 1482, was the first work printed in the Hebrew character, and the earliest known Polyglot Bible-Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldaic, Greek, Latin-issued from the press of Genoa, in 1516. In the early history of the art of printing, the most learned men were proud to act as correctors of the press, and not unfrequently their name was attached to the title-page, along with that of the printer!

In 1462, the city of Mentz was taken and sacked by Adolphus, Count of Nassau, and this circunstance is said to have so deranged the establishment of Faustus and Schoeffer, that many of their workmen were obliged to seek employment elsewhere. They accordingly were dispersed into different countries, and carried with them the knowledge they had acquired under their former employers. From this period, printing made rapid progress throughout Europe. In 1465, we find works printed at Naples; and in 1467, Sweynheim and Pannartz, two of the most celebrated and extensive old printers, established themselves at Rome. In 1469, we find printing at Venice and Milan; in 1470, at Paris, Nuremberg, and Verona ; and by 1472, the art had become known in all the important cities of the continent. In 1490, it had reached Constantinople, and by the middle of next century, had extended to Russia and America. Of its rise and progress in England and Scotland, we shall come to speak immediately.

The reader, who has not studied Bibliography, may here not be unwilling to learn a few of the marks which distinguished our earliest printed books. With regard to their forms, they were generally either large or small folios, or at least quartos: the lesser sizes were not in use. The leaves were without running title, direction-word, number of pages, or divisions into paragraphs. The character itself was a rude old Gothic mixed with Secretary, designed on purpose to imitate the handwriting of those times; the words were printed so close to one another, that they were difficult and tedious to be read, even by those who were used to manuscripts, and to this method; and often led the inattentive reader into mistakes. The orthography was various and often arbitrary, disregarding

tor of signatures is doubtful; it appears they were inserted into an edition of Terence, printed at Milan, in 1470, by Anthony Zorat. In an edition of Baldi Lectura super Codic., &c. printed at Venice, by John de Colonia and Jo. de Manthen de Gherretzem, anno 1474, in folio, the signatures are not introduced till the middle of the book, and then continued throughout. Abbé Reve ascribes the first use of signatures to John Koelhof, at Cologne, in 1472. They were used at Paris, in 1476; and by Caxton, in 1480.

The art of printing was first introduced into England by William Caxton, who established a press in Westminster Abbey, sometime between 1471 and 1474. Caxton's claim to be considered the earliest printer in England has been satisfactorily proved, notwithstanding the discovery, about 1660, of a book purporting to have been printed at Oxford in the year 1468. This book is a small thin quarto, a copy of which is in the public library at Cambridge, bearing the following title:" Exposicio Sancti Jeronimi in Simbolum Apostolorum ad Papan Laurentium. Impressa Oxonii, et finita Anno Domini M.CCCC.LXVIII-XVII die Decembris." The printer of this book is said to have been Frederick Corsellis, a foreigner, who brought his types from Haerlem; and those writers who have advocated the cause of Laurence Coster as the inventor of printing, have generally pronounced Corsellis to