on this model, while others gave to the Benedictine rules a new form, and founded, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, several orders with affiliated monasteries, which, as branches of the old Benedictine order, composed so many monastic communities, closely united by a proud and jealous spirit of confederation. With the reputation of renewed sanctity, the monasteries acquired new influence and new possessions. Many of them ("exempt monasteries ") released themselves from all superintending authority, except that of the pope himself, and acquired great wealth in the time of the crusades, when those who adventured upon these expeditions left them their estates in trust till their return, or even the reversion of them in case of their death abroad. The privilege of inviolability, which had been granted, by common consent, to all monastic establishments, during the feuds of the middle ages, had induced many, who could find no better security for their property, in those days of rapine and violence, to place it under their protection. In this manner it happened that, as the zeal for reformation abated, and their influence was confirmed, new abuses sprang up in those establishments; and, as the authority of their spiritual and temporal lords was lessened by numerous exemptions, and was of little avail, when opposed by the combination of powerful religious orders, who had acquired great strength in all the countries of Europe, from the protection of the popes, the character of each monastery came, at last, to depend chiefly upon that of the abbot who was at its head.

In France, the abolition of all orders and monasteries was decreed, in 1790, which example was followed by all the states incorporated with France, as well as by all the other Catholic states upon the continent of Europe, in the nineteenth century under the protection of Napoleon, with the exception of Austria, Spain, Portugal, Naples, Poland, and Russia. This measure seems to have been the result of financial calculations rather than the dictate of true humanity. In Prussia, provision was made for the monks who were dispossessed; and, after Joseph's example, the wealth obtained by secularizing the monasteries was appropriated to the support of churches and schools; but where the French system prevailed, these estates were thrown into the public treasury. Late events have much improved their condition in Italy; and Pius VII., in his concordate with France, Bavaria, and Naples, made provision for the maintenance of those already existing, and the foundation of new ones in those countries. In Austria, many monasteries have been suffered to become extinct. Not a few of these institutions render themselves useful, by the instruction of youth, especially of the female sex, and by taking care of the sick. For the monastic vows, see the next article; for further information, see Orders, religious. Abbot, Anachoret, &c.

MONASTIC VOWS are three in number; poverty, chastity, and obedience. The vow of poverty prevents the monks from holding any property individually; monasteries, however, may hold corporate property; for the Roman Catholic church makes a distinction between the high, higher, and highest degrees of poverty. In the first case, a monastery may possess portions of real estate, yet not more than enough for its support; as the Carmelites and Augustines. In the second, a monastery cannot hold any real estate, but only personal property; as books, dresses, supplies of food and drink, rents, &c.; as the Dominicans. The third permits neither the holding of real nor of personal property; as is the case with the Franciscans, and especially the Capuchins. The vow of chastity requires an entire abstinence from familiar intercourse with the other sex; and that of obedience, entire compliance with the rules of the order, and the commands of the superior.

MONDAY (moon and day; Saxon Monandæg; German Montag; Latin luna dies; all of the same signification); the second day of our week, formerly sacred to the moon. See Week.

The number of monasteries was much diminished at the time of the reformation, when the rich estates of the establishments which were deserted by the monks and nuns, in Protestant states, were in part appropriat ed by the sovereign to his own use, and partly devoted to the founding and supporting of institutions for the purposes of education, or transferred to universities and academies, were bestowed as rewards upon deserving ecclesiastics (as was the case with the abbeys in Lower Saxony and Wurtemburg), or were employed for the support of noble ladies until they married, as in Hesse, Holstein, Mecklenburg, &c. (For the suppression of the monasteries in England, under Henry VIII., see Henry VIII.) In Catholic countries, they retained their original constitution MONBODDO, LORD. See Burnett, James. till the eighteenth century; but, from the influence MONCONTOUR; a village of France, in Vienne, of the spirit of the age, they sank in the public esti- about twenty-five miles N. W. of Poictiers. Henry mation, and were obliged, as the papal power dimin-III., when duke of Anjou, defeated Coligny here in ished, to submit to many restrictions, imposed upon 1569. See Coligny. them by Catholic princes, or to purchase immunity at a high price. The benefits which they had formerly conferred upon the world, as the preservers of literary treasures; as places of refuge for the poor and the persecuted; as institutions for the education of youth; as places of retirement for persons of distinction who had outlived their usefulness, or were weary of the world; as schools for the mild correction and improvement of erring members of the human family,-appeared unimportant in the eyes of politicians and philosophers, when compared with their injurious effect upon the increase of population by their encouragement of celibacy; upon the public welfare, by their incessant grasping at the estates of wealthy persons, who had committed their children to their care; upon industry, by the idleness of their inhabitants; and upon public morals, by the sins which were notoriously committed within their walls. In this light were monasteries regarded by the greater portion of enlightened men, when, in 1781, the houses of some orders were wholly abolished by Joseph II., and those which he suffered to remain were limited to a certain number of inmates, and cut off from all connexion with any foreign authority.

MONDAY, PLOUGH. See Plough Monday. MONDOVÍ, a city in the Sardinian territories, capital of the province of the same name, in Coni (Cuneo), thirty miles south of Turin; a bishop's see; population, 21,550. It is situated on the top of a steep hill, and surrounded by fortifications. Among the public buildings, the principal is the cathedral. The battle of Mondovi, gained by general Bonaparte in 1796, rendered the French masters of Piedmont.

MONEMBASIA, the Greek name for the place called in the English books Malvasia. The population given under Malvasia is that of the place before the late desolating war. The present population is but 200.

MONEY; the common medium of exchange among civilized nations. Money must consist of a material, 1. which has a value of its own; 2. which every man is willing to accept in exchange for his property; 3. whose value is readily ascertained. If

this material is moulded into a particular form, and parative value is necessarily very nearly the same stamped with a mark denoting its value, so that it is all over the world, since each metal costs but a trifle appropriated expressly to the exchanging of articles for transportation, and both are articles of value having value, it is called money, in distinction from everywhere. The quantities of gold, in its various other articles which have value, but which are not forms of coin and bullion of all descriptions, including used as a medium of exchange. The materials of bars, plate, &c., has been estimated to be 10,000,000 which money is made, as well as the coin, are mer- of pounds, troy weight. chandise, like other articles that are bought and sold. Different nations, in the early periods of their cultivation, have chosen for money different materials, all having more or less of the above-mentioned peculiarities. All nations, advanced in trade and the arts, give preference to metals, especially the precious metals; for, 1. they derive value from the smallness of their quantities, compared with the demand for them in the ornamental and useful arts. 2. They are very little subject to corrosion and destruction by use. 3. They are susceptible of minute division, and may be used in small quantities or masses. 4. They are easily transported, as their transportation to any distance will cost but a small part of their value. 5. The quantity is increased by labour. The advantage of using the precious metals for a universal currency is still greater, when it is not left for every private man to divide the pieces of metal, to weigh them, and fix their fineness, but persons are appointed under the authority of the law, to decide what pieces shall be circulated as money, to stamp them so as to fix their weight and fineness, and to furnish them with the superscription of the authority by which | they are authorized. Such pieces are called coins; (for the process of coining, see Coinage). Instead of money the merchant often receives a promissory note or bill: this substitute is sometimes improperly termed money. It is manifest that promissory notes or bills of exchange are of the same value with the real money only while they can be readily exchanged for coin, and that they must lose their value in proportion as the credit of those who issue them, sinks. This is true of all paper money (see Circulating Medium), and all metallic money whose current value is higher than its real value, all notes or bonds taken instead of money. That any sort of money may be received for its real value, or that which it represents, and trade be carried on by means of it, it is necessary that its value should be acknowledged wherever it is used. A distinction, however, is made between money which is received in only one trading-place or small circle, issued in time of peculiar necessity, denominated tokens, &c., also coins current in only one country, and money which is everywhere acknowledged and received, such as bars of gold and silver, of a certain weight and fineness, also Dutch ducats, Spanish dollars. The exchangeable value of gold and silver, like that of all other commodities, depends, in the first place, on their plenty or scarceness, or, in other words, the quantity supplied in comparison with the quantity wanted, or for which there is a demand; and, in the second place, upon the labour necessary in extracting the ore from the mines, and refining it. As a general rule, it may be assumed that if, taking the aggregate of silver mines, and that of iron mines, the expense, that is, the labour, including the use of machinery, necessary to extract a pound of silver from the ore, and refine it, is twenty times the expense, or labour, of smelting, forging, and refining a pound of iron, silver will be worth twenty times as much as iron. The comparative value of gold and silver will depend upon the same causes as that of either compared with iron, copper, or tin. In Britain, the value of gold, compared to that of silver, is as 15; to 1; in France, as 15 to 1; in Geneva, as 15 to 1; and in the United States of America as 15 to 1. The com

A scarcity of money can occur only when, 1. the material of which it is manufactured is deficient, or, 2. when those in want of it have nothing to give in exchange to its possessors. In the last place, there is no real deficiency of money, for there are individuals who, by the terms of the supposition, possess the money: there is only a deficient demand for goods on hand, and those only are in want of money who are unable to dispose of these goods. Scarcity of money, therefore, is only a relative expression; i. e. there are certain places or persons without money to obtain certain articles which they desire to possess. All mechanics, artisans, and manufacturers want money enough to purchase the raw materials which they consume, and to pay the wages of their labourers. Merchants need money to pay manufacturers and producers for their goods, and to transport them where they are wanted, and the last consumer needs it to give in exchange for what he eats, drinks, wears, &c., to the dealer of whom he procures the requisite articles. Now, if any one of these classes has not the money required for any of those purposes, there is a scarcity of money for that class of individuals. In these and similar cases, the scarcity of money does not suppose a real scarcity of gold and silver, or a deficiency of coined metals. The scarcity arises from the want of industry, or means, in any class of citizens, to procure the money in circulation, or from their industry being directed to the production of such articles as there is no present demand for among the actual possessors of money; as when, for instance, in grain-growing countries, there is a deficiency of purchasers of the grain produced, there not being consumers enough of the grain, who can obtain or produce desirable articles in exchange for it. In such a case, the producers of grain can obta:n money only by exportation of the article to foreign ports. And if it happens that the foreign lands to which it is exported are already provided with grain from some other quarter, it will remain unsold-not because there is no money, but because there is no motive to induce its possessors to part with it for grain. In places where manufactures of any kind prosper, a certain quantity of money is required to provide the materials. This sum is easily ascertained, according to a certain average, and there is no scarcity of money for these purposes, as long as this sum is on hand. But when the manufacture is increased, by the operation of particular circumstances, and the place produces more goods than common upon this account, a scarcity of money may easily occur among those devoted to this branch of business. If now these persons possess goods or credit, they make use of both to obtain the money required from other parts; which will depend, again, upon their being able to pay the expenses of transporting their goods, or to give to the holders of money a higher interest than they can elsewhere obtain. Money, in these cases, becomes of more value in these places than in those where it is not so much in demand; and it follows, from this, that money will leave the places where it is plenty to seek those where, from the want of it, more will be paid for its use; and, in this manner, a scarcity of money will work its

own cure.

Money is profitable to any country only by means of its circulation (q. v.); for circulation makes money the continually repeated cause of the production of

new portions of property; and, on this account, a small sum of money, in constant circulation, is of far more benefit to a country than the possession of the largest sums which remain locked up, and do not change owners. A great quantity of money, therefore, is of no service to a country, unless there are desirable things in that country, for the purchase of which it is to be paid, and thus transferred from one to another. When, therefore, more money flows into any country than will pay for what the country actually produces, money becomes of less value, and the money price of merchandise greater. In this case, it is better to procure the goods from countries where their money price is less. The money will thus be exported again, and procure a return of cheap goods in its place. But, by this process, the industrious part of the population are injured, and those only receive profit who make these exchanges of money for foreign goods. The labouring classes, therefore, experience a scarcity of money, because the articles which they produce do not command a ready sale. In this manner, all the gold and silver obtained by Spain and Portugal from South America passed into foreign countries in exchange for foreign necessaries. The only true means, then, to remove and to prevent permanently a scarcity of money, is to improve the state of domestic and internal industry; and their opinion is wholly destitute of foundation, who believe that a mere plenty of money is sufficient to develop a healthy state of domestic industry; for the money does not produce the goods, but follows their production. And money will not stay in a country that does not contain goods upon which it may be expended, but it seeks those countries which produce the objects of desire.

has to perform, and the devices used for economising its employment. Generally, however, it is very considerable; and when it consists wholly of gold and silver, it occasions a very heavy expense. The wish to lessen this expense has been one of the chief causes that have led all civilized and commercial countries to fabricate a portion of their money of some less valuable material, such as paper.

MONEY, STANDARD OF. See Standard. MONGE, GASPAR, a celebrated mathematician and natural philosopher, born at Beaune, in 1746, studied in the colleges of the fathers of the oratory at Beaune and Lyons with such success that he became a teacher at the age of sixteen. He was afterwards employed at the military school of Mézières, where he assisted Bossut, the professor of mathematics, and afterwards Nollet, professor of physics, whom he succeeded. In 1780, he removed to Paris, on being admitted into the academy of sciences, and became the coadjutor of Bossut, in a course of lectures on hydrodynamics at the Louvre. He quitted Mézières entirely in 1783, on being appointed examiner of the marine, when he composed a Treatise on Statics, afterwards used for the polytechnic school. In 1789, like other friends of freedom, Monge indulged in expectations of the regeneration of France. Through the influence of Condorcet, he was made minister of the marine, in 1792, and he held, at the same time, the portfolio of minister of war, during the absence of general Servan with the army. He thus became a member of the executive council of government, in which capacity he signed the order for the execution of Louis XVI. Shortly after, he resigned his functions, in consequence of which he was exposed to the persecution of the ruling party of the Jacobins, The worst of all means of supplying a scarcity of against which he successfully defended himself. He money is the multiplication of those things (as paper was then employed, together with other men of of all kinds) by which it is represented, or which are science, in improving the manufacture of gunpowder, used as substitutes for it; for these circulating media and otherwise augmenting the military resources of are only worth so much as can be obtained in real the country. The Normal school was founded, with value for them, and the scarcity of the precious which Monge became connected; and he then publish. metals in the country, preventing those who de- ed his Géométrie descriptive, one of his principal sire it from exchanging their money for them, the works. Together with Berthollet and Guyton Morvalue of this paper medium falls at once. Nor veau, he principally contributed to the establishment does it help the case to base the value of this of the polytechnic school; after which, in 1796, he was money upon any thing else than the precious me- commissioned to go to Italy, and collect the treasures tals; for, if their value is expressed in any article of art and science from the countries conquered by the not so easily disposed of as gold or silver, as grain, French; and the labours of Monge and his colleagues for instance, these bills for grain are worth no more gave rise to the splendid assemblage of works of taste than the grain itself; and, if grain falls in value, and genius, which for a time ornamented the halls of these grain-bills must of necessity sink with them; the Louvre. In 1798, he went with Bonaparte to and, if the grain cannot be used as a means of pay- Egypt, where he was again employed in the service ment, then they lose their value altogether. A cir- of science. On his return to France, he resumed his culating medium fixed upon so insecure a basis can functions as professor at the polytechnic school, in never take the place of real gold and silver. The the success of which he greatly interested himself. truth of all these remarks is strikingly illustrated by The attachment which he manifested to Bonaparte the history of the continental paper issued by the led to his being nominated a member of the senate, American congress, during the revolution, and by on the formation of that body. The emperor bestowthat of the celebrated French assignats, which, rest-ed on him the title of count of Pelusium, the senaing upon the credit of a people without money, and without means of getting it, were soon found to be of little worth, or of none at all. Nor is this contradicted by the fact that the paper of the bank of England remained good during the stoppage of specie payments; for the wealth and the productiveness of this nation are so great as to render all transactions safe in any paper authorized by its government; and that wealth and industry combined place it in a situation so far removed from most countries, that it only forms, in this respect, a fair exception to a gene

ral law.

No certain estimate can ever be formed of the quantity of money required to conduct the business of any country; this quantity being, in all cases, determined by the value of money itself, the services it

torial lordship of Liege, made him grand cordon of the legion of honour, gave him an estate in Westphalia, and, a little before he set out on his Russian expedition, a present of 200,000 francs. The fall of his benefactor involved him in misfortunes. He was expelled from the institute in 1816, one of his sons-in-law was exiled, and he was deprived of all his employments. His faculties became disordered, and he died July 28, 1818. Besides the works above noticed, Monge published Description de l'Art de fabriquer les Canons (4to), and Application de l'Analyse à la Géométrie des Surfaces (4to), as well as a multitude of memoirs on mathematical and physical science. His pupil Dupin has published an Essai historique sur les Services et les Travaux scientifiques de Monge.

MONGULS; a great nation in the north-east of Asia, which, after having been, at two different times, in the middle ages, distinguished for its conquests, has been sunk, for three centuries past in inactivity, and is now hardly known in Europe, but by name. The Monguls have been frequently coufounded

gatais, who lived between the river Oxus and Tartary. But this division of the empire among several petty princes was the cause of the gradual decay of the power and consequence of the Monguls in the fourteenth century. In the fifteenth century, various hordes of this nation were subjugated or with the Tartars dwell-destroyed by the Russians, whose conquerors they ing in south-western had previously been. In China, the empire of the Asia, with whom, how- Monguls had been overturned, in 1368, by a revoluever, they have nothing tion. But, about 1360, there appeared a second in common but a noma- formidable warrior of the tribe of the Dshagatai, dic mode of life, and an Timurlenk (Tamerlane, q. v.), called also Timur irregular savage method Beg. He was of obscure descent, but, as the dynasty of waging war, pillage of the Monguls of Dshagatai had fallen into decline, being their sole object. raised himself by his talents and courage to the They differ from them sovereignty of the whole nation. In 1369, he chose essentially, by a dingy the city of Samarcand for the seat of his new governcomplexion, small eyes, ment. The other Mongul tribes, with Persia, Cenand their corporeal struc- tral Asia, and Hindostan, were successively subjuture in general, as well gated by him. In 1400, he attacked, in Natolia, the as by their language and sultan Bajazet I., who had been hitherto victorious manners. The annexed against the Christians in Europe, and before whom cut represents the dress Constantinople trembled. The battle of Ancyra of the males. (Anguri), 1402, was decided against Bajazet; he suffered a total defeat, and was even made prisoner by Timur. The story of the severity which the conqueror is said to have used towards his prisoner, is not well substantiated. For a time, the Christian powers were thus freed from a formidable enemy. After Timur had conquered and desolated all Natolia, he died on an expedition to China, March 19, 1405, sixty-nine years of age. After his death, the monarchy of the Monguls was divided into several states. Baber (Babur), a descendant of Timur, founded, in India, in 1519, a powerful monarchy, which existed till the close of the eighteenth century, as the empire of the Great Mogul. See Hindostan.

Their early history is obscure. In the thirteenth century, they spread their conquests and devastations from the depths of northern Asia over Russia, and other parts of Europe. They came from the regions which they now, in part, inhabit, Mongolia, north of the great wall of China, between the present Eastern Tartary and Bucharia. For their power and consequence they were indebted to the genius of a single extraordinary individual, Genghis Khan (q. v.), who having been, originally, merely the chief of a single Mongul horde, compelled the other hordes to submit to his power, and then, in 1206, conceived the bold plan of conquering the whole earth. In a short time he subjugated two great Tartar empires in the east and The Mongul tribes now in existence live partly west of Asia, destroyed in six campaigns the mighty under Russian, partly under Chinese dominion. Those monarchy of the sultans of Chowaresmia, who reign- which remain of the tribe of the Kaptshaks live ed over Turkestan and all Persia as far as India, intermingled with the Calmucks, in the government and during the same period sent part of his subjects, of Irkutsk; their number, with that of the Calmucks, under the command of his eldest son, in 1223, to de- is estimated at 300,000. The rest, which are under vastate Russia. After the death of Genghis Khan, Chinese sovereignty, but are governed by four difin 1227, his sons pursued his conquests, subjugated ferent khans, live in Mongolia, which is bounded by all China, subverted the caliphate of Bagdad, and Tungusia, China, Little Tartary, and Siberia. They made the Seljook sultans of Iconium tributary. In all profess the religion of Fo (q. v.), lead a nomadic 1237, a Mongul army again invaded Russia, con- life, but, by means of caravans, carry on some trade quered Moscow, and desolated a great portion of the with Russia, in woollen and cotton goods of their own Country. Having subjugated Russia, the Monguls manufacture. (See the Hist. des Monguls depuis entered Poland in 1240, burned Cracow, and advanc- Tschinguiz-Khan jusqu'à Timour-Lane (Paris, 1824), ed in Silesia to Leignitz, where they conquered and Isaac James Schmidt's excellent Forschungen im Henry, duke of Breslau, in a bloody battle, April 9, Gebieteder ältern, religiösen, politischen und literar. 1241. But want of provisions soon compelled them Bildunsgesch. der Mongolen und Tibeter (St Petersto leave the countries which they had laid waste with burg, 1824). Schmidt's German translation of fire and sword. In Germany, and even France, where Ssanang Ssætsæn's History of the Eastern Monguls, the former invasions of the Huns were held in remem-accompanied with a commentary, and with the Monbrance, the fear of them was so great, that fasts and prayers were appointed to avert their approach. They were prevented from taking advantage of the general consternation to extend their conquests, by the disputes which arose respecting the succession to the throne, after the death of Khan Octai, the immediate successor of Genghis Khan. The empire of the MONITEUR. November 24, 1789, a journal was Monguls still held together, and at the end of the commenced at Paris, the Gazette Nationale, ou le thirteenth century was at the summit of its power. Moniteur Universel, which was intended to give an At that time, it extended from the Chinese sea and account of foreign events, but more especially of the from India, far into the interior of Siberia, and to doings of the national assembly, and on the 7th Nithe frontiers of Poland. The principal seat of the vose of the year VIII., it was declared an official great khan was China; the other countries were paper. Since that time it has been the most imgoverned by subordinate khans, all of whom were de- portant, and the only official journal of the French scended from Genghis, and were more or less depen- government. Since January 1, 1811, it has dropped dent on the great khan. The most powerful of the the title Gazette Nationale, and retained only that of Monguls were the Kaptshaks, who lived on the Wol- Moniteur Universel. The occurrences that took place ga, and were the scourges of Russia, and the Dsha-between 1787 and the opening of the national assem

gul original, has been printed at Petersburg, at the expense of the emperor. Baber's interesting Memoirs, written by himself, have been translated from the Dshagatai Turkish into English (London, 1826), by Leyden and Erskine with an introduction, very important for the history of the Monguls.

bly, have been subsequently added in an introduction | place with the Dutch republic, he engaged in the published in the year IV. (Paris, 1 vol. fol.) In the naval service, and, together with admirals Blake and year IX. (Paris, 2 vols. folio), appeared the Révolu- Dean, commanded in two engagements, in which tion Française, ou Analyse complète et impartiale du they triumphed over the enemy, commanded by the Moniteur, par Ordre Chronologique, and in the follow-famous Van Tromp. On the re-establishment of ing year, the Table Alphabétique du Moniteur (like- peace, Monk returned to Scotland, where, at the wise in 2 vols. folio), but neither of which, unfortu-head of the English army, he maintained the authority nately, comes down farther than the close of the year of Cromwell in that country. On the decease of the VII. The Moniteur appears every day in a large protector, the resignation of power by his son, and folio sheet, often accompanied with supplements. It the contest of parties which subsequently took place, contains, in the two divisions appropriated to foreign he availed himself of the commanding situation which and domestic news, not only the official ordinances he occupied, to crush the republicans, and promote and documents of the government, appointments, re- the recall and restoration of the Stuart family to the movals from office, promotions, &c., with notices on throne, in the person of Charles II. The dukedom the arts, literature, and the drama, but also such of Albemarle, the order of the garter, and the office political information as the government intends shall of privy-counsellor, rewarded the loyalty of the be regarded in France as official. The Moniteur had restorer of Charles II. During the Dutch war, a great circulation in France and Europe generally, Monk was again employed in the naval service, and and also in America, during the revolution. Entire in 1666 defeated the Dutch fleet commanded by his sets are rare. The years VII. and VIII. (1798- former antagonist, Van Tromp, and admiral De 1800) in particular, of which a smaller impression Ruyter. He died January 3, 1670, and was buried was made, are often wanting. Among the daily in Westminster abbey. He was married to a woman papers of modern times, the Moniteur maintains a in low life, who maintained a complete ascendency melancholy celebrity. It has exhibited, in the same over him. nation, the picture of the most unbridled popular rage, and of oppressive monarchical despotism. It is one of the most important collections of public documents for the historian of the great changes in Europe since the beginning of the French revolution.

MONITOR; a genus of large lizards, which have teeth in both jaws, and none on the palate; most of them have the tail compressed laterally: they derive their name from a popular belief that they give warning of the approach of crocodiles, by making a kind of whistling noise. They are found in most parts of the world, and the fossil remains of species much larger than any now existing, have been discovered in various places in Europe.

MONITORIAL INSTRUCTION. See Mutual Instruction.

MONKEY (Simia, Linn.) The monkey tribe forms by far the largest portion of the great order of quadrumana, and, in addition to hands on all the extremities, with long and flexible fingers and opposable thumbs, they generally possess also the following characteristics:-The incisor teeth are four in each jaw, and their molars resemble those of man: these are five in number on each side of each jaw in the monkeys of the old continent, and in one tribe of the new; the remainder of the American species have a sixth. The canines vary in size, from a powerful tusk to a trifling projection beyond their other teeth. The nails of all their fingers, as well as those of the thumbs, are invariably flat and expanded. The head is subject to great variations, in some approaching the human in form, and passing through every intermediate gradation, till it becomes as flat as that of the dog. But of all their organs there is none which exhibits so remarkable a discrepancy as the tail: this is wholly wanting in some; forms a mere rudiment in others; is short and tapering in a third group; moderately long and cylindrical in a fourth; in a fifth, extremely long, and covered with hair; whilst, again, in another group, it is long, denuded of hair beneath and at tip, and prehensile. On these characters naturalists have made several classifications of them, each differing from the other as to the value of certain distinctions. The following is that given by Cuvier, in the last edition of his Règne Animal:

I. Subgenus.
1. Subdivision.

MONK. See Monastery, and Orders, religious. MONK, GEORGE, duke of Albemarle, an English military officer, distinguished in history for the prominent part he acted in the restoration of Charles II., was the son of Sir Thomas Monk. He was born Dec. 6, 1608. Entering into the army at an early age, he served under Sir Richard Grenville, in an expedition to Spain, and in 1630, went to the Netherlands, where he was promoted to a captaincy. He was engaged in the unfortunate expedition of Charles I. against the Scots in 1639, at which period he was made lieutenant-colonel. On the rebellion taking place in Ireland, he was sent thither, and his services were rewarded with the post of governor of Dublin. Hostilities occurring between the king and the parliament, colonel Monk brought over his regiment to his majesty's assistance. He was appointed major-general in the Irish brigade; and being employed at the siege of Nantwich, was made a prisoner, and committed to custody in the Tower of London. He devoted his leisure to writing, and composed Observations on Military and Political Affairs, published not long after his death. Having 8. been detained about three years in confinement, he accepted a commission from the parliament, on condition of being employed only against the Irish insur-1. gents. He distinguished himself repeatedly in this service; but, having made a treaty with the Catholic chieftain O'Neal, which gave offence to the English parliamentary government, he resigned his command, and returned to his estate. After the entire overthrow of the royal party, Monk was employed with Cromwell in Scotland, and was present at the battle of Dunbar. His coadjutor returning to England, he was intrusted with the chief command. War taking

2.

3.

5.

6.

7.

11. Subgenus.

2.

1. Division.
Subdivision,

3.

4.

5.

Sakis.

Brachiurus, Spix.

Callithriz, Geoff.
Nocthora, F. Cuvier.

But although thus diversified in their forms, they all possess some general characteristics. They are