In the last sixteen verses the angel solemnly asseverates the truthfulness and importance of the foregoing sayings, pronounces a blessing on those who keep them exactly, gives warning of his speedy coming to judgment, and of the nearness of the time when these prophecies shall be fulfilled (xxii. 6-21).

(5.) Interpretation.-A short account of the different directions in which attempts have been made to interpret the Revelation, is all that can be given in this place. The special blessing promised to the reader of this book (i. 3), the assistance to common Christian experience afforded by its precepts and by some of its visions, the striking imagery of others, the tempting field which it supplies for intellectual exercise, will always attract students to this book and secure for it the labors of many commentators.

The interval between the Apostolic age and that of Constantine has been called the Chiliastic period of Apocalyptic interpretation. The visions of St. John were chiefly regarded as representations of general Christian truths, scarcely yet embodied in actual facts, for the most part to be exemplified or fulfilled in the reign of Antichrist, the coming of Christ, the Millennium, and the Day of Judgment. The fresh hopes of the early Christians, and the severe persecution they endured, taught them to live in those future events with intense satisfaction and comfort. They did not entertain the thought of building up a definite consecutive chronological scheme even of those symbols which some moderns regard as then already fulfilled; although from the beginning a connection between Rome and Antichrist was universally allowed, and parts of the Revelation were regarded as the filling-up of the great outline sketched by Daniel and St. Paul.

Immediately after the triumph of Constantine, the Christians, emancipated from oppression and persecution, and dominant and prosperous in their turn, began to lose their vivid expectation of our Lord's speedy Advent and their spiritual conception of his kingdom, and to look upon the temporal supremacy of Christianity as a fulfillment of the promised reign of Christ on earth. The Roman empire, become Christian, was regarded no longer as the object of prophetic denunciation, but as the scene of a millennial development. This view, however, was soon met by the figurative interpretation of the millennium, as the reign of Christ in the hearts of all true believers. As the barbarous and heretical invaders of the falling empire appeared, they were regarded by the suffering Christians as fulfilling the woes denounced in the Revelation. The beginning of a regular chronological interpretation is seen in Berengaud (assigned by some critics to the 9th century), who treated the Revelation as a history of the Church from the beginning of the world to its end. And the original Commentary of the Abbot Joachim is remarkable, not only for a further development of that method of interpretation, but for the scarcely disguised identification of Babylon with Papal Rome, and of the second Beast of Antichrist with some Universal Pontiff.

In the dawn of the Reformation, the views to which the reputation of Abbot Joachim had given currency were taken up by the harbingers of impending change, as by Wicliffe and others; and they became the foundation of that great historical school of interpretation, which up to this time seems the most popular of all. It is impossible to construct an exact classification of modern interpreters of the Revelation. They are generally placed in three great divisions.

(a.) The Historical or Continuous expositors, in whose opinion the Reve

lation is a progressive history of the fortunes of the Church from the first century to the end of time.

(b.) The Præterist expositors, who are of opinion that the Revelation has been almost or altogether fulfilled in the time which has passed since it was written that it refers principally to the triumph of Christianity over Judaism and Paganism, signalized in the downfall of Jerusalem and of Rome. This is the favorite interpretation with the critics of Germany.

(c.) The Futurist expositors, whose views show a strong reaction against some extravagances of the two preceding schools. They believe that the whole book, excepting perhaps the first three chapters, refers principally, if not exclusively, to events which are yet to come.

Each of these three schemes is open to objection. Against the Futurist it is argued, that it is not consistent with the repeated declarations of a speedy fulfillment at the beginning and end of the book itself (see ch. i. 3; xxii. 6, 7, 12, 20). Christians, to whom it was originally addressed, would have derived no special comfort from it, had its fulfillment been altogether deferred for so many centuries. The rigidly literal interpretation of Babylon, the Jewish tribes, and other symbols, which generally forms a part of Futurist schemes, presents peculiar difficulties.

Against the Præterist expositors it is urged that prophecies fulfilled ought to be rendered so perspicuous to the general sense of the Church as to supply an argument against infidelity; that the destruction of Jerusalem, having occurred twenty-five years previously, could not occupy a large space in prophecy; that the supposed predictions of the downfall of Jerusalem and of Nero appear from the context to refer to one event, but are by this scheme separated, and moreover, placed in a wrong order; that the measuring of the temple and the altar, and the death of the two witnesses (ch. xi.), can not be explained consistently with the context.

Against the Historical scheme it is urged that its advocates differ very widely among themselves; that they assume without any authority that the 1260 days are so many years; that several of its applications-e. g., of the symbol of the ten-horned beast to the Popes, and the sixth seal to the conversion of Constantine-are inconsistent with the context; that attempts by some of this school to predict future events by the help of the Revelation have ended in repeated failures.

In conclusion it may be stated that two methods have been proposed by which the student of the Revelation may escape the incongruities and fallacies of the different interpretations, while he may derive edification from whatever truth they contain. It has been suggested that the book may be regarded as a prophetic poem, dealing in general and unspecific descriptions, much of which may be set down as poetic imagery, mere embellishment. But such a view would be difficult to reconcile with the belief that the book is an inspired prophecy. A better suggestion is made, or rather revived, by Dr. Arnold in his Sermons On the Interpretation of Prophecy: that we should bear in mind that predictions have a lower historical sense, as well as a higher spiritual sense; that there may be more than one typical, imperfect, historical fulfillment of a prophecy, in each of which the higher spiritual fulfillment is shadowed forth more or less distinctly. The recognition of this would pave the way for the acceptance in a modified sense of many of the interpretations of the Historical school, and would not exclude the most valuable portions of the other schemes.

APPENDIX II.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY,

INCLUDING THE

CONNECTION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS.

For the sake of greater completeness, these Tables begin with the Return from the Captivity; thus repeating the last section of the Tables of Old Testament History, but in a more condensed form. S signifies a Sabbatic year.

522 The building stop- The PSEUDO-SMER- Death of Polycrates ped by a royal de- DIS (the Magian of Samos.

cree.

Gomates).

521 Haggai and Zecha- DARIUS I., son of 1

218

219

TARQUINIUS SUPER- 220

BUS.

225

227

229

232

riah.

Hystaspes, con

firms the edict of
Cyrus.

499

Ionian revolt

23

255

Patricians oppress 259

Plebeians.

Secession to the 260
Sacred Mt.

Tribunes andEdiles

of Plebs.

My- Wars with Italians.

330 6. ONIAS I. H-P. Murder of Darius..Demosthenes de 7

Invasion of Alex- 3 Battle of the

326

323

Alexander returns from India.. Death of Alexander at Babylon...... 14 320 Ptolemy takes Je- PTOLEMY I., Soter.. Contests of the Dia

11 SecondSamnite War 4 8 431

dochi in Asia and
Europe.

rusalem.

Settlements of Jews!

at Alexandria, in
Egypt and Cyrene.

314 Palestine under An

tigonus.

312 [Era of the Seleu

cidæ.]

303 Death of Onias I.

(J08.)

453

301 War of the Diadochi ended by the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia.

Palestine subject to

Egypt till A.D. 198.

300 Death of Onias I.

Jews settle in Syria

251 9. MANASSEH, H.-P.

250

S 247

Seleucus murdered. Pyrrhus in Italy... 473 2. ANTIOCHUS I. Soter War with Pyrrhus 474 First Punic War.. 490 Ma-3. ANTIOCHUS II. [Greece: Growth of 493 Achæan League.

Theos.

Revolt of Parthia... Aratus and Philo- 503

pomen.]

Era of the Arsacido Metellus in Sicily. 504

3. PTOLEMY III. Eu- Berosus: historian Hamilcar Barca.... 507

Friendly relations Disastrous wars with Peace with Carthage 513
with Judæa inter- Egypt and Parthia.
rupted.

236. Seleucus taken

prisoner by the

Parthians.

5. SELEUCUS

Ceraunus.

6. ANTIOCHUS

the Great.

III.

III.

514

538

531

532

4. PTOLEMY IV.Phi- Quells revolt in Me

dia. Makes war in Egypt Second Punic War. 535

217 Ptolemy recovers Victory over Anti- Defeat at Raphia.. Battle of Trasimene 537

Palestine, profanes ochus.

the Temple, but is Persecutes the Jews The Jews incline to

driven out super- of Alexandria.

ward Syria.

naturally.