can spring only from right faith. Wrong belief therefore destroys Love, and with it Christianity. Therefore, says he, "If there come any unto you and bring not this doctrine, receive him not into your house, neither bid him God speed, for he that biddeth him God speed is partaker of his evil deeds" (2 Ep. 10, 11).

The Third Epistle was written for the purpose of commending to the kindness and hospitality of Gaius some Christians who were strangers in the place where he lived. It is probable that these Christians carried this letter with them to Gaius as their introduction. It would appear that the object of the travelers was to preach the Gospel to the Gentiles without money and without price (3 Ep. 7). St. John had already written to the ecclesiastical authorities of the place; but they, at the instigation of Diotrephes, had refused to receive the missionary brethren, whom therefore the Apostle now commends to the care of a layman. It is probable that Diotrephes was a leading presbyter who held Judaizing views, and would not give assistance to men who were going about with the purpose of preaching solely to the Gentiles. Whether Demetrius (ver. 12) was a tolerant presbyter of the same community, whose example St. John holds up as worthy of commendation in contradistinction to that of Diotrephes, or whether he was one of the strangers who bore the letter, we are now unable to determine. The latter supposition is the more probable.

We may conjecture that the two Epistles were written shortly after the First Epistle, from Ephesus. They both apply to individual cases of conduct the principles which had been laid down in their fullness in the First Epistle. The title Catholic does not properly belong to the Second and Third Epistles. It became attached to them, although addressed to individuals, because they were of too little importance to be classed by themselves, and, so far as doctrine went, were regarded as appendices to the First Epistle.

§ 14. THE EPISTLE OF JUDE.-The writer of this Epistle styles himself, ver. 1, Jude the brother of James," and has been usually identified with the Apostle Judas Lebbæus or Thaddæus. 96 But there are strong reasons for rendering the words "Judas the son of James:" and inasmuch as the author appears (ver. 17) to distinguish himself from the Apostles, we may agree with eminent critics in attributing the Epistle to another author. The most probable conclusion is that the author was Jude, one of the brethren of Jesus, and brother of James, not the Apostle the son of Alphæus, but the bishop of Jerusalem.

As to the time and place at which it was written, all is conjecture. The author being not absolutely certain, there are no external grounds for deciding the point; and the internal evidence is but small.

Although the Epistle of Jude is one of the so-called Antilegomena, and its canonicity was questioned in the earliest ages of the Church, there never was any doubt of its genuineness among those by whom it was known. The question was never whether it was the work of an impostor, but whether its author was of sufficient weight to warrant its admission into the Canon. This question was gradually decided in its favor.

The object of the Epistle is plainly enough announced, ver. 3: the reason for this exhortation is given ver. 4. The remainder of the Epistle is almost entirely occupied by a minute depiction of the adversaries of the

96 Luke vi. 16.

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faith. The Epistle closes by briefly reminding the readers of the oft-repeated prediction of the Apostles-among whom the writer seems not to rank himself that the faith would be assailed by such enemies as he has depicted (ver. 17-19), exhorting them to maintain their own steadfastness in the faith (ver. 20, 21), while they earnestly sought to rescue others from the correct example of those licentious livers (ver. 22, 23), and commending them to the power of God in language which forcibly recalls the closing benediction of the Epistle to the Romans (ver. 24, 25)." This Epistle presents one peculiarity, which, as we learn from St. Jerome, caused its authority to be impugned in very early times-the supposed citation of apocryphal writings (ver. 9, 14, 15). The former of these passages, containing the reference to the contest of the archangel Michael and the devil "about the body of Moses," was supposed by Origen to have been founded on a Jewish work called the "Assumption of Moses." As regards the supposed quotation from the Book of Enoch, the question is not so clear whether St. Jude is making a citation from a work already in the hands of his readers, or is employing a traditionary prophecy not at that time committed to writing.

It has been already mentioned that the larger portion of this Epistle (ver. 3-16) is almost identical in language and subject with a part of the Second Epistle of Peter. 98

IV. THE REVELATION OF ST. JOHN.

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§ 15. The word Revelation is the translation of the Greek title of the book Apocalypsis ('Añoкáhvpiç), that is, uncovering" or unveiling." (1.) Canonical Authority and Authorship.—The question as to the canonical authority of the Revelation resolves itself into a question of authorship. If it can be proved that a book, claiming so distinctly as this does the authority of divine inspiration, was actually written by St. John the Apostle, then no doubt will be entertained as to its title to a place in the Canon of Scripture. The evidence in favor of St. John's authorship consists of (i.) the assertions of the author, and (ii.) historical tradition.

(i.) The author's description of himself in the 1st and 22d chapters is certainly equivalent to an assertion that he is the Apostle. (a) He names himself simply JOHN, without prefix or addition-a name which at that period, and in Asia, must have been taken by every Christian as the designation, in the first instance, of the great Apostle who dwelt at Ephesus. He is also described as (b) a servant of Christ, (c) one who had borne testimony as an eye-witness of the Word of God and of the testimony of Christ -terms which were surely designed to identify him with the writer of the verses John xix. 35, i. 14, and 1 John i. 2. He is (d) in Patmos for the Word of God and the testimony of Jesus Christ: it may be easy to suppose that other Christians of the same name were banished thither, but the Apostle is the only John who is distinctly named in early history as an exile at Patmos. He is also (e) a fellow-sufferer with those whom he addresses, and (f) the authorized channel of the most direct and important communication that was ever made to the Seven Churches of Asia, of which churches John the Apostle was at that time the spiritual governor and teacher. Lastly, (g) the writer was a fellow-servant of angels and a brother of prophets

97 Cf. Rom. xvi. 5-27.

98 2 Pet. ii. 1-19.

titles which are far more suitable to one of the chief Apostles, and far more likely to have been assigned to him, than to any other man of less distinction. All these marks are found united together in the Apostle John, and in him alone of all historical persons. We must go out of the region of fact into the region of conjecture to find such another person. A candid reader of the Revelation, if previously acquainted with St. John's other writings and life, must inevitably conclude that the writer intended to be identified with St. John. Unless we are prepared to give up the veracity and divine origin of the whole book, and to treat the writer's account of himself as a mere fiction of a poet trying to cover his own insignificance with an honored name, we must accept that description as a plain statement of fact, equally credible with the rest of the book, and in harmony with the simple, honest, truthful character which is stamped on the face of the whole narrative. Besides this direct assertion of St. John's authorship, there is also an implication of it running through the book. Generally, the instinct of singleminded, patient, faithful students has led them to recognize not merely the same Spirit as the source of this and other books of Holy Scripture, but also the same peculiarly-formed human instrument employed both in producing this book and the fourth Gospel, and in speaking the characteristic words and performing the characteristic actions recorded of St. John.

(ii.) The historical testimonies in favor of St. John's authorship begin with Justin Martyr (A.D. 150); but Jerome states that the Greek Churches felt, with respect to the Revelation, a similar doubt to that of the Latins respecting the Epistle to the Hebrews.99

(2.) Time and Place of Writing.—The date of the Revelation is given by the great majority of critics as A.D. 95-97. The weighty testimony of Irenæus is almost sufficient to prevent any other conclusion. He says: "It (i. e., the Revelation) was seen no very long time ago, but almost in our own generation, at the close of Domitian's reign. Eusebius also records that, in the persecution under Domitian, John the Apostle and Evangelist was banished to the island of Patmos for his testimony of the divine Word. There is no mention in any writer of the first three centuries of any other time or place. Unsupported by any historical evidence, some commentators have put forth the conjecture that the Revelation was written as early as the time of Nero. This is simply their inference from the style and contents of the book, and is connected with a theory of the early fulfillment of its chief prophecies. It has been inferred from i. 2, 9, 10, that the Revelation was written in Ephesus, immediately after the Apostle's return from Patmos. But the style in which the messages to the Seven Churches are delivered rather suggests the notion that the book was written in Patmos.

(3.) Contents.-The first three verses contain the title of the book, the description of the writer, and the blessing pronounced on the readers, which possibly, like the last two verses of the fourth Gospel, may be an addition by the hand of inspired survivors of the writer. John begins (i. 4) with a salutation to the Seven Churches of Asia. This, coming before the announcement that he was in the Spirit, looks like a dedication not merely of the first vision, but of all the book, to those churches. In the next five verses (i. 5-9) he touches the key-note of the whole following book, the great fundamental ideas on which all our notions of the government of the

99 The authorities on the subject are given in the Dictionary of the Bible, vol. iii. p. 1035.

world and the Church are built; the Person of Christ, the redemption wrought by him, his second coming to judge mankind, the painful, hopeful discipline of Christians in the midst of this present world: thoughts which may well be supposed to have been uppermost in the mind of the persecuted and exiled Apostle even before the Divine Inspiration came on him.

(a.) The first vision shows the Son of Man with His injunction, or Epistles, to the Seven Churches. While the Apostle is pondering those great truths and the critical condition of the churches which he had left, a Divine Person, resembling those seen by Ezekiel and Daniel, and identified by name and by description as Jesus, appears to John, and, with the discriminating authority of a Lord and Judge, reviews the state of those churches, pronounces his decision upon their several characters, and takes occasion from them to speak to all Christians who may deserve similar encouragement or similar condemnation. Each of these sentences, spoken by the Son of Man, is described as said by the Spirit. Hitherto the Apostle has been speaking primarily, though not exclusively, to some of his own contemporaries concerning the present events and circumstances. Henceforth he ceases to address them particularly. His words are for the ear of the universal Church in all ages, and show the significance of things which are present in hope or fear, in sorrow or in joy, to Christians everywhere (i. 7-iii. 22). (b.) In the next vision, Patmos and the Divine Person whom he saw are gone. Only the trumpet voice is heard again calling the seer to a change of place. He is in the highest court of heaven, and sees God sitting on his throne. The seven-sealed book or roll is produced, and the slain Lamb, the Redeemer, receives it amid the sound of universal adoration. As the seals are opened in order, the Apostle sees (1) a conqueror on a white horse, (2) a red horse betokening war, (3) the black horse of famine, (4) the pale horse of death, (5) the eager souls of martyrs under the altar, (6) an earthquake with universal commotion and terror. After this there is a pause, the course of avenging angels is checked, while 144,000, the children of Israel, servants of God, are sealed, and an innumerable multitude of the redeemed of all nations are seen worshiping God. Next (7)

the seventh seal is opened, and half an hour's silence in heaven ensues (v. 1-viii. 1).

(c.) Then seven angels appear with trumpets, the prayers of saints are offered up, the earth is struck with fire from the altar, and the seven trumpets are sounded. (1) The earth and (2) the sea and (3) the springs of water and (4) the heavenly bodies are successively smitten, (5) a plague of locusts afflicts the men who are not sealed (the first woe), (6) the third part of men are slain (the second woe), but the rest are impenitent. Then there is a pause; a mighty angel with a book appears and cries out, seven thunders sound, but their words are not recorded, the approaching completion of the mystery of God is announced, the angel bids the Apostle eat the book, and measure the temple, with its worshipers, and the outer court given up to the Gentiles; the two witnesses of God, their martyrdom, resurrection, ascension, are foretold. The approach of the third woe is announced and (7) the seventh trumpet is sounded, the reign of Christ is proclaimed, God has taken his great power, the time has come for judgment and for the destruction of the destroyers of the earth (viii. 2-xi. 19).

The three preceding visions are distinct from one another. Each of the last two, like the longer one which follows, has the appearance of a distinct

FF

prophecy, reaching from the prophet's time to the end of the world. The second half of the Revelation (xii.-xxii.) comprises a series of visions which are connected by various links. It may be described generally as a prophecy of the assaults of the devil (the dragon) and his agents (the ten-horned beast, the two-horned beast or false prophet, and the harlot) upon the Church, and their final destruction. It appears to begin with a reference to events anterior, not only to those which are predicted in the preceding chapter, but also to the time in which it was written. It seems hard to interpret the birth of the child as a prediction, and not as a retrospective allusion. (d.) A woman clothed with the sun is seen in heaven, and a great red dragon, with seven crowned heads, stands waiting to devour her offspring; her child is caught up unto God, and the mother flees into the wilderness for 1260 days. The persecution of the woman and her seed is described as the consequence of a war in heaven, in which the dragon was overcome and cast out upon the earth (xii.).

St. John, standing on the sea-shore, sees a beast with seven heads, one wounded, with ten crowned horns, rising from the water, as the representative of the dragon. All the world wonder at and worship him, and he attacks the saints and prevails. He is followed by another two-horned beast rising out of the earth, who compels men to wear the mark of the beast, whose number is 666 (xiii.).

St. John sees the Lamb, with the 144,000 who are standing on Mount Zion and learning the song of praise of the heavenly host. Three angels

fly forth calling men to worship God, proclaiming the fall of Babylon, and denouncing the worshipers of the beast. A blessing is pronounced on the faithful dead, and the judgment of the world is described under the image of a harvest reaped by angels (xiv.).

St. John sees in heaven the saints who had overcome the beast, singing the song of Moses and the Lamb. Then seven angels come out of the heavenly temple, having seven vials of wrath, which they pour out upon the earth, sea, rivers, sun, the seat of the beast, Euphrates, and the air, after which there is a great earthquake and a hail-storm (xv., xvi.).

One of the last seven angels carries St. John into the wilderness, and shows him a harlot, Babylon, sitting on a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns. She is explained to be that great city, sitting upon seven mountains, reigning over the kings of the earth. Afterward St. John sees a vision of the destruction of Babylon, portrayed as the burning of a great city, amid the lamentations of worldly men and the rejoicings of saints (xvii., xviii.).

Afterward the worshipers in heaven are heard celebrating Babylon's fall and the approaching marriage-supper of the Lamb. The Word of God

is seen going forth to war at the head of the heavenly armies: the beast and his false prophet are taken and cast into the burning lake, and their worshipers are slain (xix.).

An angel binds the dragon, i. e., the devil, for 1000 years, while the martyred saints who have not worshiped the beast reign with Christ. Then the devil is unloosed, gathers a host against the camp of the saints, but is overcome by fire from heaven, and is cast into the burning lake, with the beast and false prophet. St. John then witnesses the process of the final judgment, and sees and describes the new heaven and the new earth, and the new Jerusalem, with its people and their way of life (xx.-xxii. 5).