Jewish character, the different phases which Judaism presented in Palestine and Alexandria, the good and the evil which were called forth by contact with idolatry in Egypt, and by the struggle against it in Syria, all these present themselves to the reader of the Apocrypha with greater or less distinct

ness.

The following is a brief account of the separate books:

§ 6. The First and Second Books of Esdras are called in the Vulgate, and in all the earlier editions of the English Bible, the third and fourth books. In the Vulgate 1st Esdras means the canonical book of Ezra, and 2d Esdras means Nehemiah.

(i.) First Book of Esdras.-The first chapter is a transcript of the two last chapters of 2 Chr., for the most part verbatim. Chapters iii., iv., and V., to the end of v. 6, are the original portions of the book, and the rest is a transcript more or less exact of the book of Ezra, with the chapters transposed and quite otherwise arranged, and a portion of Nehemiah. Hence a twofold design in the compiler is discernible: one to introduce and give Scriptural sanction to the legend about Zerubbabel; the other to explain the great obscurities of the book of Ezra, in which however he has signally failed. The original portion of the book seems to indicate that the writer was thoroughly conversant with Hebrew, even if he did not write the book in that language.

(ii.) The Second Book of Esdras was originally called "the Apocalypse of Ezra," which is a far more appropriate title. The Greek text, in which it was originally written, is lost. The common Latin text, which is followed in the English version, contains two important interpolations (Ch. i. ii. ; xv. xvi.) which are not found in the Arabic and Æthiopic versions, and are separated from the genuine Apocalypse in the best Latin MSS. Both of these passages are evidently of Christian origin. The original Apocalypse (iii.-xiv.) consists of a series of angelic revelations and visions, in which Ezra is instructed in some of the great mysteries of the moral world, and assured of the final triumph of the righteous.

§ 7. Tobit. The scene of this book is placed in Assyria, whither Tobit, a Jew, had been carried as a captive by Shalmaneser. But it must have been writtten considerably later than the Babylonian captivity, and can not be regarded as a true history. It is a didactic narrative; and its point lies in the moral lessons which it conveys, and not in the narrative. In modern times the moral excellence of the book has been rated highly, except in the heat of controversy. Luther pronounced it, if only a fiction, yet "a truly beautiful, wholesome, and profitable fiction, the work of a gifted poet. . . . A book useful for Christian reading.” Nowhere else is there preserved so complete and beautiful a picture of the domestic life of the Jews after the Return.

§ 8. Judith. This book, like that of Tobit, belongs to the earliest specimens of historical fiction. The narrative of the reign of "Nebuchadnezzar king of Nineveh" (i. 1), of the campaign of Holofernes, and the deliverance of Bethulia, through the stratagem and courage of the Jewish heroine, contains too many and too serious difficulties, both historical and geographical, to allow of the supposition that it is either literally true, or even carefully moulded on truth. But the value of the book is not lessened by its fictitious character. On the contrary it becomes even more valuable as exhibiting an ideal type of heroism, which was outwardly embodied in the wars of in

dependence. The self-sacrificing faith and unscrupulous bravery of Judith were the qualities by which the champions of Jewish freedom were then enabled to overcome the power of Syria, which seemed at the time scarcely less formidable than the imaginary hosts of Holofernes. The peculiar character of the book, which is exhibited in these traits, affords the best indication of its date; for it can not be wrong to refer its origin to the Maccabæan period, which it reflects not only in its general spirit but even in smaller traits. § 9. Esther. The additions to the book of Esther have been spoken of in the Old Testament History.'

§ 10. The Wisdom of Solomon.-This book may be divided into two parts, the first (cc. i.-ix.) containing the doctrine of Wisdom in its moral and intellectual aspects; the second, the doctrine of Wisdom as shown in history (cc. x.-xix.). The first part contains the praise of Wisdom as the source of immortality, in contrast with the teaching of sensualists; and next the praise of Wisdom as the guide of practical and intellectual life, the stay of princes, and the interpreter of the universe. The second part, again, follows the action of Wisdom summarily, as preserving God's servants, from Adam to Moses, and more particularly in the punishment of the Egyptians and Canaanites (xi. 5-16; xi. 17-xii.). From internal evidence it seems most reasonable to believe that the book was composed at Alexandria some time before the time of Philo (about 120-80 B.C.).

§ 11. The Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus. — The former is the title of this book in the Septuagint, the latter in the Vulgate, the name "Ecclesiasticus" indicating that the book was publicly used in the service of the Church. Of its author, Jesus (i. e., Jeshua or Joshua), the son of Sirach, "of Jerusalem," we know absolutely nothing; but his Palestinian origin is substantiated by internal evidence. The language in which the book was originally composed was Hebrew, that is, probably, the vernacular Aramæan dialect. It was translated into Greek by the grandson of the author, in Egypt "in the reign of Euergetes," for the instruction of those " in a strange country (v πapoikia) who were previously prepared to live after the law." It is an important monument of the religious state of the Jews at the period of its composition. As an expression of Palestinian theology it stands alone; for there is no sufficient reason for assuming Alexandrine interpolations or direct Alexandrine influence. The conception of God as Creator, Preserver, and Governor, is strictly conformable to the old Mosaic type; but at the same time his mercy is extended to all mankind. Little stress is laid upon the spirit-world, either good or evil; and the doctrine of a resurrection fades away. In addition to the general hope of restoration, one trait only of a Messianic faith is preserved, in which the writer contemplates the future work of Elias. The ethical precepts are addressed to the middle class. The praise of agriculture and medicine, and the constant exhortations to cheerfulness, seem to speak of a time when men's thoughts were turned inward with feelings of despondency and perhaps of fatalism. At least the book marks the growth of that anxious legalism which was conspicuous in the sayings of the later doctors. Life is already imprisoned in rules: religion is degenerating into ritualism : knowledge has taken refuge in schools.

§ 12. Baruch.-This book is remarkable as the only one in the Apocry

7 See p. 571.

pha which is formed on the model of the Prophets; and though it is wanting in originality, it presents a vivid reflection of the ancient prophetic fire. The assumed author is undoubtedly the companion of Jeremiah, but the details of the book are inconsistent with the assumption. It exhibits not only historical inaccuracies, but also evident traces of a later date than the beginning of the captivity. The date of its composition is probably about the time of the war of liberation (B.c. 160), or somewhat earlier.

§ 13. The Song of the Three Children, Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon, are additions to the canonical book of Daniel, and are spoken of in the "Old Testament History.'

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§ 14. The Prayer of Manasses, king of Judah. - The repentance and restoration of Manasseh' furnished the subject of many legendary stories. "His prayer unto his God" was still preserved "in the book of the kings of Israel when the Chronicles were compiled, 1o and, after this record was lost, the subject was likely to attract the notice of later writers. "The Prayer" in the Apocrypha is the work of one who has endeavored to express, not without true feeling, the thoughts of the repentant king. The writer was well acquainted with the LXX. ; but beyond this there is nothing to determine the date at which he lived. The clear teaching on repentance points to a time certainly not long before the Christian era. There is no indication of the place at which the Prayer was written.

§ 15. The First and Second Books of Maccabees.—(i.) The First Book of Maccabees contains a history of the patriotic struggle, from the first resistance of Mattathias, to the settled sovereignty and death of Simon, a period of thirty-three years (B.c. 168-135). The opening chapter gives a short summary of the conquests of Alexander the Great, and describes at greater length the oppression of Antiochus Epiphanes. The great subject of the book begins with the enumeration of the Maccabæan family (ii. 1-5), which is followed by an account of the part which the aged Mattathias took in rousing and guiding the spirit of his countrymen (ii. 6-70). The remainder of the narrative is occupied with the exploits of his five sons. Each of the three divisions, into which the main portion of the book thus naturally falls, is stamped with an individual character derived from its special hero. The great marks of trustworthiness are everywhere conspicuous. Victory and failure and despondency are, on the whole, chronicled with the same candor. There is no attempt to bring into open display the working of Providence. The testimony of antiquity leaves no doubt but that the book was first written in Hebrew. Its whole structure points to Palestine as the place of its composition. There is, however, considerable doubt as to its date. Perhaps we may place it between B.c. 120-100. The date and person of the Greek translator are wholly undetermined. (ii.) The Second Book of Maccabees.-The history of the Second Book of the Maccabees begins some years earlier than that of the First closes with the victory of Judas Maccabæus over Nicanor. braces a period of twenty years, from B.c. 180 (?) to B.c. 161. For the few events noticed during the earlier years it is our chief authority; during the remainder of the time the narrative goes over the same ground as 1 Macc., but with very considerable differences. The first two chapters are taken up by two letters supposed to be addressed by the Palestinian to the Alexan

Book, and It thus em

10 2 Chr. xxxiii. 18.

drine Jews, and by a sketch of the author's plan, which proceeds without any perceptible break from the close of the second letter. The main narrative occupies the remainder of the book. This presents several natural divisions, which appear to coincide with the "five books" of Jason on which it was based. The first (c. iii.) contains the history of Heliodorus (cir. B.C. 180). The second (iv.-vii.) gives varied details of the beginning and course of the great persecution (B.c. 175-167). The third (viii.-x. 9) follows the fortunes of Judas to the triumphant restoration of the Temple service (B.c. 166, 165). The fourth (x. 10-xiii.) includes the reign of Antiochus Eupator (B.c. 164-162). The fifth (xiv., xv.) records the treachery of Alcimus, the mission of Nicanor, and the crowning success of Judas (B.C. 162, 161). The writer himself distinctly indicates the source of his narrative-" the five books of Jason of Cyrene" (ii. 23), of which he designed to furnish a short and agreeable epitome for the benefit of those who would be deterred from studying the larger work. His own labor, which he describes in strong terms (ii. 26, 27; comp. xv. 38, 39), was entirely confined to condensation and selection; all investigation of detail he declares to be the peculiar duty of the original historian. Of Jason himself nothing more is known than may be gleaned from this mention of him. The district of Cyrene was most closely united with that of Alexandria. In both the predominance of Greek literature and the Greek language was absolute. The work of Jason must therefore have been composed in Greek ; and the style of the epitome proves beyond doubt that the Greek text is the original. It is scarcely less certain that the book was compiled at Alexandria.

The Second Book of Maccabees is not nearly so trustworthy as the First. In the Second Book the groundwork of facts is true, but the dress in which the facts are presented is due in part at least to the narrator. It is not at all improbable that the error with regard to the first campaign of Lysias arose from the mode in which it was introduced by Jason as a prelude to the more important measures of Lysias in the reign of Antiochus Eupator. In other places (as very obviously in xiii. 19 ff.) the compiler may have disregarded the historical dependence of events, while selecting those which were best suited for the support of his theme. The latter half of the book (cc. viii.-xv.) is to be regarded, not as a connected and complete history, but as a series of special incidents from the life of Judas, illustrating the providential interference of God in behalf of His people, true in substance, but embellished in form.

There are two other books of the Maccabees, entitled the Third and the Fourth, not included in the English Apocrypha. The Third Book of the Maccabees contains the history of events which preceded the great Maccabæan struggle. The Fourth Book of Maccabees contains a rhetorical narrative of the martyrdom of Eleazar and of the "Maccabæan family," following in the main the same outline as 2 Macc.

SECTION III.

NEW FORMS OF WORSHIP-THE SYNAGOGUES.

§ 1. Importance of the subject. § 2. History of the Synagogues. § 3. Their influence. § 4. Structure. § 5. Internal arrangement. § 6. Officers. § 7. Worship. § 8. Judicial functions.

§ 1. THE word synagogue,' which means a "congregation," is used in the New Testament to signify a recognized place of worship. A knowledge of the history and worship of the synagogues is of importance to the student, since they are the great characteristic institution of the later phase of Judaism. More even than the Temple and its services, in the time of which the New Testament treats, they at once represented and determined the religious life of the people. We can not separate them from the most intimate connection with our Lord's life and ministry. In them he worshiped in his youth, and in his manhood. Whatever we can learn of the ritual which then prevailed tells us of a worship which he recognized and sanctioned; which for that reason, if for no other, though, like the statelier services of the Temple, it was destined to pass away, is worthy of our respect and honor. They were the scenes, too, of no small portion of his work. In them were wrought some of his mightiest works of healing.2 In them were spoken some of the most glorious of his recorded words ;” many more, beyond all reckoning, which are not recorded.*

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§ 2. We know too little of the life of Israel, both before and under the monarchy, to be able to say with certainty whether there was any thing at all corresponding to the synagogues of later date. They appear to have arisen during the exile, in the abeyance of the Temple worship, and to have received their full development on the return of the Jews from captivity. The whole history of Ezra presupposes the habit of solemn, probably of periodic meetings. The "ancient days" of which St. James speaks may, at least, go back so far. After the Maccabæan struggle for independence, we find almost every town or village had its one or more synagogues. Where the Jews were not in sufficient numbers to be able to erect and fill a building, there was the Proseucha,' or place of prayer, sometimes opened, sometimes covered in, commonly by a running stream or on the sea-shore, in which devout Jews and proselytes met to worship, and, perhaps, to read."

§ 3. It is hardly possible to overestimate the influence of the system thus developed. To it we may ascribe the tenacity with which, after the Maccabæan struggle, the Jews adhered to the religion of their fathers, and never