empire, and the taxes paid by the Jews directly to the emperor, the publicans were the officers appointed to collect them. Now the ordinary taxes which the Romans levied in the provinces, were of three sorts: 1st. Customs upon goods imported and exported; which tribute was therefore called portorium, from portus, a haven. 2dly. A tax upon cattle fed in certain pastures belonging to the Roman state, the number of which being kept in writing, this tribute was called scriptura. 3dly. A tax upon corn, of which the government demanded a tenth part. This tribute was called decuma. We read of popoç and rɛλoç, translated "tribute and custom;" Romans xiii. 7. Concerning the precise and distinct meaning of these words, the critics are much divided. Grotius makes popoç to signify a tax upon lands and persons; and TελOÇ, custom upon goods and merchandise. Lipsius, by reλos understands a tax upon a real estate; by popos, a tax upon moveables and persons. Leigh* supposes popos to mean duties upon goods; rɛλoç, a capitation or poll-tax. According to Beza, dopos signifies a capitation or poll-tax, and Tɛλoç includes all other taxes and duties. Other critics have given still different accounts. So that, in the midst of such great uncertainty, we must be content with this general observation, that these words together include all taxes and duties, though we are unable to ascertain the precise meaning of either of them, or the difference betwixt them. It being highly probable, that the public taxes varied from one age to another, I suspect, that in different ages these words were applied to different taxes and duties, which occasions an uncertainty about the precise idea to be affixed to them. Perhaps Tελo was the more general name, or included the larger number of taxes, at least among the Greeks; which seems probable from the collectors, in their language, being called reλ@va; whereas in the Latin they are styled publicani, as being collectors of the public taxes, or revenue of the state. These publicans are distinguished by Sigonius into three sorts or degrees, the farmers of the revenue, their partners, * See his Critica Sacra, in verb. and their securities,* in which he follows Polybius.† These are called the mancipes, socii, and prædes; who were all under the quastores ærarii, that presided over the finances at Rome. The mancipes farmed the revenue of large districts, or provinces, had the oversight of the inferior publicans, received their accounts and collections, and transmitted them to the quastores ararii. They often let out their provinces in smaller parcels to the socii; so called, because they were admitted to a share in the contract, perhaps for the sake of more easily raising the purchase-money; at least to assist in collecting the tribute. Both the mancipes and socii are therefore properly styled τελωναι, from τελος, tributum, and ωνεομαι, emo. They were obliged to procure prædes, or sureties,§ who gave security to the government for the fulfilment of the contract. The distribution of Sigonius, therefore, or rather of Polybius, is not quite exact, since there were properly but two sorts of publicans, the mancipes and the socii. The former are, probably, those whom the Greeks call apɣireλwvai; of which sort was Zaccheus ; Luke xix. 2. As they were much superior to the common publicans in dignity, being mostly of the equestrian order, so they were generally in their moral character. They are mentioned with great respect and honour by Cicero: "Flos," saith he, “equitum Romanorum, ornamentum civitatis, firmamentum reipublicæ, * "Alii conducebant, alii cum his societatem coibant, alii pro his bona fortunasque reipublicæ obligabant." Sigon. de Antiq. Jure Civium Romanorum, lib. ii. cap. iv. † Οι μεν γαρ αγοράζουσι παρα των τιμητων αυτοί τας εκδοσεις δι δε κοινωνουσι τούτοις δι δε εγγυώνται τας εγορακοτας" δι δε ταν ουσιας διδασιν περί τούτων εις το δημοσιον. "Alii enim à censoribus locationes per se emunt; alii cum his societatem habent; alii pro redemptoribus fidem suam interponunt; alii horum nomine bona sua in publicum addicunt." Polyb. Hist. lib. vi. tom. i. p. 646, edit. Gronov. Amstel. 1670. ↑ We meet frequently in Cicero with the Socii, and the Publicanorum Societates: Orat. pro Domo suâ, vol. v. sect. xxviii. p. 472, ed. Olivet. ; and with the Principes, or Magistri Societatum, who were the Mancipes, Orat. pro Planc. vol. v. sect. ix. p. 545, et sect. 13, p. 548, et Epist. Famil. lib. xiii. epist. ix.; and the Digests mention the Socii vectigalium, lib. xxxix. tit. iv. leg. ix. sect. iv. § Called Fidejussores in the Digests, ubi supra, leg. ix. ab init. || Præs signifies a surety for money, as vas does a surety in criminal matters. publicanorum ordine continetur."* He likewise calls them "ordinem mihi commendatissimum."+ But as for the common publicans, the collectors or receivers, as many of the soci were, they are spoken of with great contempt, by heathens as well as Jews; and particularly by Theocritus, who said, that "among the beasts of the wilderness, bears and ons are the most cruel; among the beasts of the city, the publican and parasite." The reason of the general hatred to them was, doubtless, their rapine and extortion. For, having a share in the farm of the tribute, at a certain rate, they were apt to oppress the people with illegal exactions, to raise as large a fortune as they could for themselves. Besides, publicans were particularly odious to the Jews, who looked upon them to be the instruments of their subjection to the Roman emperors, to which they generally held it sinful for them to submit. For among the laws in Deuteronomy concerning the kings, there is in particular the following: "One from among thy brethren shalt thou set over thee; thou mayest not set a stranger over thee, who is not thy brother;" chap. xvii. 15. Now paying tribute to the Roman emperor they looked upon to be a virtual acknowledgment of his sovereignty. This, therefore, was a heavy grievance, and created an aversion to the collectors, as the instruments of illegal oppression, apart from all consideration of their rapacious practices. Accordingly, in the New Testament, we find them joined with harlots and heathens, and persons of the most profligate and infamous characters; and it was intended for a severe reproach of our Lord Jesus Christ, when he was said to be " a friend of publicans and sinners;" Luke vii. 34. Hence that ensnaring question was put to him, with a design "to entangle him in his talk," Matt. xxii. 15. 17, "Is it lawful to give tribute to Cæsar?" If he had denied it, it would have been judged an offence against the state; and if he had affirmed it, it would * Orat. pro Plancio, apud Opera, vol. v. sect. ix. p. 544, edit. Olivet. † Epist. Famil. lib. xiii. epist. x. apud Op. vol. vii. p. 442. Vid. etiam epist. ix. per totum, et Epist. ad Attic. lib. i. epist. xvii. vol. viii. p. 80. † Vid. Hammond on Matt. ix. 10. The twelfth law, under the fourth title, in the thirty-first book of the Digests, is prefaced with these remarkable words: "Quantæ audaciæ, quantæ temeritatis sint publicanorum factiones, nemo est qui nesciat." F probably have exposed him to the rage and resentment of the people. It was on pretence of freeing them from this tributary yoke, that Judas of Galilee, or (as Josephus calls him) Judas Gaulanites, excited an "insurrection in the days of the taxing, and drew away much people after him;" Acts v. 37. Of this Josephus gives a particular account,* and saith, that when the census was first extended to Judea by Cyrenius, after Archelaus had been deposed by Augustus, the Jews were greatly chagrined at it; but at the persuasion of Joazer, the high-priest, they generally submitted. Yet, it seems, much against their wills; for when this Judas excited the people to rebellion, and to assert their liberty, they heard him, saith the historian, "with incredible pleasure," and made an insurrection on that account, under him as their leader. Tertulliant imagined, that the publicans, among the Jews, were all heathens; which, not understanding Hebrew, he grounded on a spurious text in the Septuagint. This opinion is confuted by the instances of Matthew and Zaccheus, who both appear to be Jews, by their names and their history. The latter is expressly said to be a son of Abraham; and as for Matthew, we may be assured, that our Lord, who, at present, was sent to none but the lost sheep of the house of Israel, would not have made an apostle of a Gentile. However, the Jews, who accepted the office of publicans, were, on that account, hated of their own nation equally with heathens, with whom they are sometimes ranked, Matt. xviii. 17; and, according to the rabbies, it was a maxim, "A religious man, who becomes a publican, is to be driven out of the society of religion."§ * Antiq. lib. xviii. cap. i. sect. i. edit. Haverc. Deut. xxiii. 18, in the Greek. The words are, ovк esαι TEXEσpopos año θυγατέρων Ισραήλ, και ουκ εται τελισκόμενος από ύιων Ισραηλ. They were probably at first a gloss in the margin, or inserted in the text of the Seventy from some other version; and are strangely misunderstood by Tertullian, who supposes TEXEσpopos to signify, in this place, a publican, or tax-gatherer, which it most commonly does; but here it means a prostitute for hire, such as in the Pagan mysteries raised contributions by their lewdness. See Grotius and Le Clerc in loc. § See Lightfoot, Hora Heb. on Matt. xviii. 17. CHAPTER III. ISRAELITES AND PROSELYTES. GODWIN distinguishes the people of Israel into two sorts, Hebrews and Proselytes. We may properly advance a step higher, and divide the whole world, after the commonwealth of Israel had been formed, into Jews and Gentiles. The Jews, or Israelites, were those members of the Hebrew republic who worshipped the one true God according to the Mosaic ritual; all others they called a goim, Gentiles, and Dummim, the people, meaning, of the world, Psalm ii. 1. In the New Testament they are styled 'EXλnveç, Greeks; Rom. i. 16, and ii. 9, 10. When Greeks are opposed to barbarians, the term signifies the learned, as distinguished from the illiterate part of mankind; the Greeks in those days being looked upon as a people of the most erudition, or at least their language being esteemed the most improved and polite. But when Greeks are opposed to Jews, they include the whole heathen world, of which the Greeks were the most considerable. Some have imagined, that the triple distinction which St. Paul makes, Gal. iii. 28, "there is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female," refers to a form of thanksgiving which the Jews are said to have repeated in their daily prayers; wherein they gave thanks to God for these three things: that he had made them Jews, and not Gentiles; that he had made them free, and not bond-men, or slaves; that he had made them men, and not women. Instead of the third article, the women thanked God that he had made them as it pleased him. If this * As by St. Paul, Rom. i. 14, and by heathen authors: avrikeira Yap TW 'Eλλnvid Bapbapos,-"The barbarian is opposed to the Greek." Thucyd. lib. i. sect. iii. Schol. v. p. 3, edit. Huds. Oxon. 1696. Aixa diαipovvтas awaνY TO TWY ανθρώπων πληθος εις Έλληνας και βαρβαρους, dividing the whole world into Greeks and barbarians." Strab. lib. ii. p. 45, edit. Casaub. Paris, 1620. |