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Observe in what terms the historian Nicetas describes the comet (or meteor) of the year 1182: After the Romans were driven from Constantinople a prognostic was seen of the excesses and crimes to which Andronicus was to abandon himself. A comet appeared in the heavens similar to a writhing

tastic drawings of some of these bodies. In his chapter entitled Celestial Monsters Ambrose Paré speaks of comets as hairy, bearded, buckler-shaped, lance-shaped, dragon-like, or resembling a battle of the clouds. And he in particular describes and represents in all its details a blood-red comet which appeared in 1528 (the figure above represented (fig. 2). This comet,' said he, 'was so horrible, so frightful, and it produced such great terror in the vulgar, that some died of fear,

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serpent; sometimes it extended itself, sometimes it drew itself in; sometimes, to the great terror of the spectators, it opened a huge mouth; it seemed that as if, thirsting for human blood, it was upon the point of satiating itself.'

'Comiers,' says Pingré, makes a horrible comet appear in the month of October, 1508, very red, representing human heads, dissevered members, instruments of war, and in the midst a sword.' May it not be, with an error of date on the part of one or other of the chroniclers, the comet of which we have spoken, and a fac-simile of which we have reproduced in fig. 2?

Under the heading of periodical comets we shall see that one of the most famous in history is that which is now called Halley's comet, from the name of the astronomer who calculated and first predicted its return. This comet has, in fact, made its appearance twenty-four times within sight of the earth since the year 12 before our era, the most remote date on record of its apparition. Let us here transcribe, according to Babinet, the most remarkable particulars of the events which have been connected with it by popular belief.

'The Mussulmans, with Mahomet at their head, were besieging Belgrade, which was defended by Huniades, surnamed the Exterminator of the Turks. The comet of Halley appeared, and the two armies were alike seized with fear. Pope Calixtus III., himself struck with the general terror, ordered public prayers to be offered up, and launched a timid anathema against the comet and the enemies of Christianity. He instituted the prayer called the Angelus de Midi, the use of which still con

and others fell sick. It appeared to be of excessive length, and was of the colour of blood. At the summit of it was seen the figure of a bent arm, holding in its hand a great sword, as if about to strike. At the end of the point there were three stars. On both sides of the rays of this comet were seen a great number of axes, knives, blood-coloured swords, among which were a great number of hideous human faces, with beards and bristling hair.'

The

tinues in all Catholic churches. The Franciscans brought 40,000 defenders to Belgrade, besieged by the conqueror of Constantinople, the destroyer of the Empire of the East. battle took place, and lasted two days without intermission. This conflict of two days caused the loss of more than 40,000 combatants. The Franciscans, without arms, crucifix in hand, appeared in the foremost ranks of the defenders, invoking the exorcism of the Pope against the comet, and turned against the enemy the Divine anger of which no man at this time doubted. What primitive astronomers!'

Fig. 3.-Halley's Comet on its apparition in 1066. From the Bayeux Tapestry.

But let us go back to an earlier date in the history of this comet. It appeared in the month of April 1066.' The Normans had at their head their Duke William, since surnamed the Conqueror, and were ready to invade England, the throne of which was at that time usurped by Harold in spite of the faith sworn to William.' That the comet was the precursor of the Conquest no one doubted. A new star, a new sovereign. Nova stella, novus rex! Such was the proverb of the time. The chroniclers say unanimously, 'The Normans, guided by a comet,

invaded England.' Fig. 3 reproduces from the celebrated Bayeux tapestry, attributed to Queen Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, the episode in which the apparition of the comet appears.

Halley's comet, by its apparition in 1066, gave rise to the objurgations of the monk of Malmesbury, which have been quoted by Pingré from an old English chronicle: Seeing his country on the point of being attacked on the one side by Harold, King of Norway, on the other side by William, and judging that bloodshed would

ensue, "Here art thou,

then," said he, apostrophising the comet, "here art thou, source of the tears of many mothers. Long have I seen thee; but now thou appearest to me more terrible, for thou menacest my country with complete ruin." Going back further still, we find that Hal

ley's comet is that which announced the death of Louis le Débonnaire, which came to pass three years later. Lastly, the comet of 684 (fig. 4) is also one of its apparitions.

We will say nothing of the famous comet of 1556, to the influence of which was long attributed the abdication of the Emperor Charles V., because it happens that the celebrated emperor had already descended from the throne when the comet made its appearance. We shall have occasion to speak further on of the announcement of its return between 1848 and 1860, and of its non-reappearance.

SECTION IV.

COMETS FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO THE PRESENT DAY.

Slow improvement in the beliefs relative to comets-Bayle's remarks upon the comet of 1680-Passage from Madame de Sevigné's letter referring to this comet and the last hours of Mazarin-In the eighteenth century belief in the supernatural exchanged for belief in the physical influence of comets-Remains of cometary superstitions in the nineteenth century-The comet of 1812 and the Russian campaign; Napoleon I. and the comet of 1769; the great comet of 1861 in Italy.

WE have just seen that the superstitious ideas of the Middle Ages were yet dominant in the height of the Renaissance, since a man of learning like Ambrose Paré-no astronomer, it is true-could attribute to comets the same malign influences as those ascribed to them in the year 1000, when the end of the world was confidently expected. Nor could it be otherwise, science not having then assigned to comets, in common with other extraordinary meteors, their true place in the order of nature.

Little by little, however, healthier ideas make their way, and to the supernatural influence of comets we shall now see gradually succeed in the minds of men of science and the [* Milton has finely expressed the popular superstition with regard to comets in the well-known lines

On the other side,

Incensed with indignation, Satan stood
Unterrified; and like a comet burned,
That fires the length of Ophiuchus huge

In the arctic sky, and from his horrid hair

Shakes pestilence and war.'-Paradise Lost, book ii.—ED.]