PART I. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. It is natural and it has been customary for us, to compare the universities of foreign countries with the seminaries which bear that name and with the colleges of our own land; and to derive our notions of the former in a great measure from our acquaintance with the latter. In regard to the universities of Germany, however, such a course must lead to false conclusions; since there is scarcely a point of resemblance between those institutions and the universities or colleges of the United States. A German university is essentially a professional school, or rather an assemblage of such schools, comprising the four faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy; the latter of which corresponds to what is elsewhere called the faculty of letters and science, and embraces every thing not strictly comprehended in some one of the other three. Those students who attend lectures in the first three faculties, do it merely as a course of professional study, and with direct reference to the professional Occupations of their future lives. Those who attend in the philosophical faculty, are mostly such as are preparing themselves to become professors in the universities, or teachers in the classical or other schools; or they are qualifying themselves for the general pursuits of literature and science; or they are such as are chiefly attending to professional studies in one of the first three faculties, but wish at the same time to make themselves acquainted with other branches of learning. Hence the different faculties correspond precisely to our professional seminaries and schools; so that could we consent to bring together into one place one of our theological seminaries, a law school, and a medical school: unite the libraries and the advantages of all; and add a faculty of letters and science; the result would be a university entirely on the German plan. Whether such a course would be advisable or practicable in the present state of our country, is a question often asked in this time of excitement on the subject of education; but to answer it properly is a matter of no little difficulty. In the course of these remarks, we hope to lay before the reader some facts and suggestions which may enable him, in some degree, to form his own judgement on this question. At present, the only advances towards such a plan in our country are exhibited at Cambridge and New Haven; where however not more than two of the faculties, in the proper sense of that word, have gone into complete operation. The universities of Germany were all founded by the governments of the countries in which they are respectively situated; but up to the time of the Reformation all such foundations, with their rights and privileges, had to receive the confirmation of the popes. That of Wittemberg in 1502 was the first that was confirmed by the emperor of Germany, and not by the pope; although the assent of the latter was afterwards applied for. That of Marburg in 1525 was at first confirmed by neither pope nor emperor; but received afterwards the sanction of the latter. After the Reformation, all new universities were confirmed by the emperors in the rights and privileges granted to them by their own sovereigns. The last which received this sanction was that of Göttingen in 1734. Erlangen, founded in 1743, appears not to have received it. From that time till the dissolution of the German empire in 1806, no new university was established. Those which have been since founded, as Berlin, Bonn, and Munich, exist of course only by the will of their own sovereigns; than which there is at present no higher authority. At the present day, all the universities are immediately and entirely dependent on the respective governments within whose bounds they fall. All the professors and instructors of every kind are appointed, and generally speaking their salaries paid, directly by the government; which supports also or directs the whole expense of the university, of the erection and repair of buildings,* of the increase of the library and scientific collections, etc. The writer has not sufficient information to enable him to state with precision, what sums are annually appropriated to the support of the several universities, nor even of the larger ones. He only knows that the Prussian government pays annually, on account of each of the universities of Halle and Bonn, the sum of 80,000 rix dollars, which is equal to about $56,000. The government of Würtemburg appropriates annually to the university of Tübingen the sum of 80,000 florins, or about $33,600. This is exclusive of the expense of a particular institution in the university (to be described hereafter), for the support of protestant and * It has been often said that German universities have no buildings. This is true in one sense, and not in another. All have a building for a library and for scientific collections; some have one with lecture rooms; others have hospitals; and all have a riding school. But it is universally true that there are no buildings for the accommodation of students, who everywhere live in hired rooms, and mostly in private houses. catholic theological students; the annual cost of which is from 90,000 to 100,000 florins, or from $37,800 to $42,000.-The universities do not exist as independent associations under charters granted by the governments; but stand immediately under their control; are regulated by them; and may at any moment be abolished by a decree of the same power, which called them into existence. The professors are of two kinds, ordinary and extraordinary. They are all appointed alike, but differ in rank. The ordinary professors, strictly speaking, constitute the faculty; they are members of the academical senate, and thus have a voice in the government of the university; they have a dean of the faculty, who is always chosen by and from themselves. When appointed, the ordinary professors may enter immediately on their duties without inauguration; but in order to enjoy all the rights and immunities of their office, and especially to be eligible as dean of the faculty, they must first hold a public disputation in Latin pro loco obtinendo. The professors extraordinary are simply teachers, and have no further duties nor privileges. Besides these there is another class of private instructors, privatim docentes, composed of young men who have taken the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, (equivalent to our Master of Arts,) and have then permission to read lectures and give private instruction in the universities.-The regular salaries of the ordinary professors vary according to circumstances from 500 to 2000 rix dollars ($350 to $1400), and rarely exceed the latter sum. The professors extraordinary seldom receive more than 500 rix dollars; often not more than 100; and the instances are not rare, where a man is at first glad to receive merely the title, without any salary whatever. The private teachers also have no salary. All the professors and instructors receive fees from the students for their private courses of lectures; which however, except in extraordinary cases, do not amount to any considerable sum. This class of private teachers is the nursery in which all future professors are trained; where they are seen just budding into life; and whence, if they flourish with a vigorous and healthy growth, they are soon transplanted to a maturer soil. If a young man distinguishes himself in this situation, he is very soon promoted to be a professor extraordinary. The governments have here an opportunity to judge of the qualifications of candidates for literary stations; and of selecting and secur ing the services of the best men; and to a young man of real promise, they are usually not slow in holding out a reward. A young man of talent and promise came to Halle in 1827 as a private instructor in the department of history; in 1828 he was made professor extraordinary; and in 1829 advanced to the rank of ordinary professor; and such instances are not uncommon. The extraordinary professorship again is regarded as a stepping stone to the ordinary one. It gives a young man a certain rank and standing in the university; he no longer reads lectures merely on sufferance; he has at least a permanent place; has enjoyed the notice of government; and is sure, if he continues to distinguish himself, of being further promoted. This however does not always take place of course. It is not unfrequent that a young man starts well in the beginning, who afterwards sits down satisfied with his present attainments, and makes no further progress. In such a case, his promotion is at an end, so far as the merits of the individual are concerned; for here, as elsewhere, importunity and favoritism often produce results, at which the public, who judge the question on its merits, are astonished. At Halle were two extraordinary professors of theology of about seventy years of age, who had held that station during the greater part of their lives; in 1829 one of them was made ordinarius; while the other remains as before. Private teachers are also sometimes found of the age of forty or fifty years; but they are usually such as have not had interest enough with the government to rise in spite of mediocrity.-In some instances literary men, with the permission of the government, give courses of lectures at the universities, and receive fees, without being attached to the institution in any other way, than as privatim docentes. Thus the historian Niebuhr, in his character of member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, reads lectures at Bonn; and at Halle a former major general was lecturing on military history and tactics. From this arrangement of the instructors into different classes, and the practice of admitting young men of the requisite qualifications to teach at pleasure in the universities, arise two important benefits, which are as yet unknown in the institutions of our own country. The first is, that a number of persons are thus always in training, either as private teachers or as professors extraordinary, in the different departments of literature and science, out of whom the higher professorships, when they become vacant, may be at once supplied. When therefore an ordinary professor dies, or removes to another sphere, the question is not, as with us, where a successor may be found; but the difficulty lies in selecting the best out of the many candidates, who are already well qualified for the office. In this country we are compelled to choose, not the man who is already qualified, but him who, under all the circumstances, will probably be best able to qualify himself for the office, after he shall have been appointed. The consequence is, that a man of eminence in some public calling is for that reason often chosen to a professorship, with the duties of which he is wholly unacquainted. He must therefore first spend some years in obtaining himself that knowledge, which as a professor he is required to teach to others. In this respect the evil is entirely remedied in Germany; but neither there nor any where is it possible to supply at once, and in all respects, the places of the more distinguished teachers. Many a man in the course of a long and active life acquires a stock of information and of influence, the loss of which can never be supplied. A younger man may indeed have all the learning and talent that is requisite to render him as good a lecturer and instructor; but he cannot as yet have the experience nor the reputation of his predecessor; and very probably may never be able to reach an equal standing. None of the successors of Newton have ever enjoyed the same reputation; although, as teachers, they may perhaps have been superior to him. As a Hebrew scholar the place of Gesenius could not well be supplied; while as instructors, there are many whose teaching might be equally valuable. The other benefit of this arrangement is, that it holds out the strongest incitements to diligence on the part of the instructors. To a young man just entering upon his career, it is obviously important to bring his whole strength to the work, in order to acquire a reputation which may authorize the expectation of promotion. He has the direct motive of profit, and the not much less direct one of hope, to stimulate his exertions. He knows besides that there are others before him in the race, actuated by the same motives, and also by the fear of being outstripped. The extraordinary professor stands in a similar predicament; he has the same motives to exertion; the same goal before him; and has moreover ardent competitors behind him. The ordinary professor has indeed reached the summit of his ambition; but he knows that if he relaxes his efforts, the fruits of all his labour will be carried off by others, and he thus lose in a measure his influence and emoluments. This system has now been long |