mostly yellow, though there were white and dark red samples. Sweet potatoes and manioc root were not shown, though they are staple products.

The principal exhibit was in Class 72, where, out of one hundred and seventy exhibitors, one hundred and twenty-two showed coffee of excellent quality, forty-five showed cacao, and three showed sugar. A national beverage, tiste, is prepared from cacao and maize, and is drunk like chocolate.

The resources of Nicaragua are as yet entirely undeveloped, but great progress is to be expected upon the opening of the new canal. Large quantities of coffee are grown in the hilly regions of the northwest, while Brazil wood grows in abundance in the forests, and between the lakes and the Pacific there are many plantations of indigo, cacao, and sugar. Potatoes and maize thrive in the upland regions of Segovia. The region to the east of the lake is a great grazing country, supporting thousands of cattle. The forests produce caoutchouc, cedar, mahogany, and dyewoods, while in all sections maize, plantains, oranges, limes, bananas, and many other fruits grow in abundance.

PARAGUAY.

The Government sent a collective exhibit of vegetables and fruits, which, however, was not very remarkable. The most noteworthy exhibit was that of maté, or Paraguay tea, which is shown packed in its original skins, and might be tasted at the pavilion. It forms the object of great interior commerce and of considerable exportation. Tobacco, tan-barks, and medicinal plants were also shown. Paraguay is a wonderfully fertile country, and might have a brilliant future were it better known. Two inscriptions upon the pavilion were to the effect that "Paraguay is equal in extent of territory to France," and that "The commerce of Paraguay is 40,000,000 francs per annum."

PERU.

This country, being crippled by her late disastrous war with Chile, made but a very small exhibit, in one corner of the Uruguay building. Coca-leaf was the principal product shown, besides which there were samples of coffee, cacao, sugar, and rice, the samples shown all being of good quality.

SAN SALVADOR.

This country sent a number of exhibits of beans, peas, fèves, and chestnuts; also of caoutchouc, coffee, indigo, castor oil, leaf tobacco, wax, peanuts, etc.

URUGUAY.

This country exhibited farinaceous vegetables, as beans of several varieties, peas, lentils (a variety of the latter being of Castilian origin), flageolets, Spanish peas, fèves, turnips, almonds and other nuts. Preserved fruits, as oranges, pears, and melons were shown; also peas and beans preserved in liquid in their pods.

There was also a good exhibit of cereals, including American, Lombardy, and Spanish wheats, English barley, Cinquantino and Guinea maize, buckwheat, linseed, hemp seed, millet, canary seed, etc. The Cinquantino yellow maize was of good quality, but the white maize had an opaque appearance. Good coffee and sugar were shown. The tobacco had a very black and rank look.

Uruguay is an essentially pasturing country, but of late years agriculture has been increasing and somewhat rivaling the raising of cattle. Twenty years ago Uruguay imported much of its cereals from Chile and the United States, but now agriculture has so advanced that the excess of cereals is exported. The wheat of Uruguay is reported to be the best in South America, yielding 10 to 15 for 1, while maize yields 300 for 1, and barley 18 to 36 for 1. All cereals and fruits of the temperate zone grow well in Uruguay, and give satisfactory yields. Potatoes give two crops a year, and the crops of 1876 and 1877 were each of 1,200,000 hectoliters of wheat and 8,000,000 of maize.

VENEZUELA.

This country had two rather important exhibits by state and city commissions, consisting of beans, fèves, lentils, peanuts, cocoa, olives, and breadfruit. There was also shown maize of good quality, rice, potatoes, yucca root, millet, etc. A very miscellaneous collection of products of the country was also shown, including tinctorial barks, medicinal plants, caoutchouc, india rubber, coca, tonka beans, vegetable ivory, bat guano, vegetable musk, waxes, etc.; also wild-tobacco seed, which is collected for cultivation. Good specimens of coffee, cacao, palm oil, castor and cocoanut oils and ginger were also shown.

CLASS 73

CHAPTER II.

BIS-AGRONOMY; AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS.

By C. V. RILEY.

Studies concerning waters, soils, climates, and rural populations. Divisions of lands and cultivations.

Agricultural statistics; agrological, hydrographical, climatic maps, agronomic maps. Tables, plans, models.

Agronomic stations; agricultural laboratories.

Agricultural syndicates, societies and meetings.

Institutions of credit, charity, of protection for rural population; mortgage companies; agricultural banks; people's banks; coöperative insurance; savings banks, etc.

Legislative measures; rural code; special laws.

Official agricultural administration : works and publications; agricultural missions.

FRANCE.

As far as actual exhibition of work was concerned there was hardly anything to be seen in this class beyond the very complete expositions made by the French agronomic stations and agricultural laboratories, as well as by societies and syndicates. As far as statistics, studied upon the soils, waters, climates, etc., were concerned, documents relative thereto were to be found almost everywhere upon the Quai d'Orsay, especially in Class 73 ter among the exhibits by the made ministry of agriculture and the schools.

INSTITUTIONS OF CREDIT.

As to the institutions of credit, of charity, of protection for rural population, etc., the Exposition showed almost nothing upon such subjects, for the simple reason that nothing of this sort, attached especially to agriculture, exists in France. Neither do agricultural banks exist, though a strong popular opinion has prevailed in France of late years in favor of agricultural credit, and it is not too much to aver that before long agricultural savings banks and institutions for such credit will be formed upon a substantial basis. A Commission de Crédit Agricole has been in operation at the ministry of agriculture for several years, and in 1888, upon the proposition of the then minister, M. Viette, a law was passed restraining the privi

lege of proprietors with a view to giving better warranty in the supplying of seeds and the fertilizers.

Questions of agricultural credit, rural assistance, and kindred subjects were discussed at the International Agricultural Congress held during the Exposition, a report of which will be found among these pages (Chapter x).

Professional agricultural Syndicates, organized in virtue of the law of March 20, 1884, have attained considerable development in France, and since the first one of these, that of the Department of Loir-et-Cher, was founded, in 1885, over six hundred have come into existence. Most of these limit themselves to the purchase in common of complete fertilizers or crude fertilizing materials, seeds and other supplies, at greatly reduced prices, and to the dissemination of information as to their use; others have undertaken the selling of grain, cattle, or other products by mutual combination. In several Departments (Lozère, Jura, Oise, and others) such syndicates have. attempted the organization of agricultural credit, such as exists in Italy or Germany. Many syndicates publish weekly or monthly bulletins, while others create laboratories and analyze the soils of their districts, or use means of defense against injurious insects, etc. In 1888 there were in France 766 special syndicates for defense against the Phylloxera, comprising 25,000 proprietors and treating 32,680 hectares of vineyards. The protection of vines from early frost by means of artificial clouds is also undertaken by syndicates.

French cultivators have thus a powerful weapon in their hands, though some of these syndicates may, perhaps, have a dangerous tendency in grasping at too wide a field of application. Those which specialize their operations have the most assured future.

About fifteen of these associations took part in the Exposition in making known their statutes and the importance, as large figures testified in most cases, of their operations. Among these numerous associations the syndicate of Govron (Mayenne) deserves especial notice; it was organized with a view to hannetonage, or defense against the cock-chafer (hanneton) and other harmful insects, and was the first society to take steps in common defense. It was inaugurated in conformity with a law which gives the prefects all powers for prescribing necessary measures for arresting or preventing damage to the crops by insects. The idea of a common defense, it is true, had already been embodied in a law upon the Phylloxera.

Following the initiative of M. Le Moult, inspector of highways at Govron, this syndicate collected and destroyed in the canton during the year 77,000 kilos of cock-chafers, paying therefor 8,025 francs.

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES.

Agricultural associations are formed by landowners and cultivators and have for their object the improvement of agriculture by

experimentation, the encouragement of new methods and useful inventions. etc., since they recognize that "in agriculture isolation is weakness and sterility, while association is power and productiveness."

The first of such associations dates from the reign of Louis XV, the Société d'Agriculture de Rennes having been founded February 2, 1757. Societies were also founded during this reign at Paris, Limoges, Rouen, Lyons, Orléans, Bourges, Alençon, and Auch.

The most important of these was that of Paris, founded March 1, 1761, which was transformed later into the Société Nationale d'Agriculture de France. This is an elective society, and counts among its members the shining lights of the agricultural world. The late M. Chevreul, the eminent chemist, who died in April, 1889, at the age of 103 years, was for 30 years its president. The society consists of 52 titular members, 15 foreign members, and 40 national associate members, also of 170 corresponding members for France, Algeria, and the Colonies, and 50 corresponding foreign members. In short this society is equivalent to the Academy of Agriculture. Memberships of titular and foreign members as well as those of national associaates are only confirmed upon approval by the President of the Republic upon representation made to him by the minister of agriculture, who is honorary president of the society. Correspondents are nominated by the minister, and the presence of 27 titular members is necessary for the validity of all elections.

The society comprises eight sections: Grand culture, special culture, sylviculture, animal economy, agricultural physics and chemical science, agricultural natural history, agricultural mechanics and irrigation, and agricultural economy, statistics and legislation. It possesses the magnificent domain of Harcourt (Eure) and its benefits to the public are recognized. It is specially instituted to answer demands of the Government, and to enlighten the same upon every point of interest in the progress and development of agricultural industry. It also has for its mission the study of all questions relating to rural legislation and economy; to examine, value and test new discoveries and processes in connection with various branches of cultivation or cattle-raising; to study the diseases of plants and of animals; to discover methods for the destruction of insects injurious to crops, and to preside at competitions for the reward of authors of new and useful discoveries, or of memoirs upon important agricultural subjects. The society publishes a monthly bulletin and an annual report of its work and of such memoirs as it has approved of.

The Société des Agriculteurs de France, founded in 1869, comprises more than 4,000 members, and is the most powerful of all the agricultural societies. It takes an active part in discussing all prominent agronomic questions and in advocating improvements and measures of reform.