sciences, including sacred music, astronomy, arithmetic, and the from his wound at Malacca, he went to Manilla; but the ship took fire on the way. During a second expedition to Cambodia, he was wrecked on Babuan Island; and during a mission to Canton he was imprisoned and tortured. In later years he was made procurator of his order, prior of Manilla, and bishop of New Segovia. Aduarte published in 1632 an 'Account of the Martyrdom of Converts in Japan;' and in 1633 a history of the missionary labours of his order. After his death was published his 'Historia de la Provincia del Sancto Rosario de la Orden de Predicadores,' folio, Manilla, 1640, the first volume of which contains an account of his travels and labours in Cambodia, Cochin China, and Canton. Aduarte died in 1637. AELST, EVERT VAN, Dutch painter, was born at Delft in 1602. He painted with great success what is technically termed still-life, especially dead birds, hares, and game generally, and sporting and warlike implements. A good colourist and finishing with great care, his works have always been attractive and still command high prices. He died in 1658. AELST, WILLEM VAN, Dutch painter, born at Delft in 1620, was the nephew and pupil of Evert Van Aelst, whom he followed in the class of his subjects, but excelled as a painter of fruit and flowers. He visited Italy, where he was known as Guglielmo d' Odlanda, and painted several pictures for the Grand Duke of Tuscany, which are still preserved in the Pitti Palace, Florence. On his return he stayed some time in Paris, but ultimately settled in Amsterdam, where his works were in great request. He died in that city in 1679. The pictures of Willem Van Aelst are more frequently met with in public galleries than those of his uncle: they are superior in arrangement, richer in subject, and more attractive. ADRIAN DE CASTELLO, Italian cardinal, and predecessor of Cardinal Wolsey as Bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Corneto in Tuscany about 1450. Distinguished as an accomplished scholar, and well skilled in civil affairs, Adrian was sent to England by Pope Innocent VIII. in 1488 to endeavour to bring about a reconciliation between James III. of Scotland and his AELST, NICOLAS VAN, engraver and printseller, was born subjects. When, however, Adrian arrived in London he received at Brussels in 1526. In 1550 he was established as a publisher intelligence of the death of James; and he stayed in England, of prints at Rome, and he continued so employed till 1600: he is being warmly recommended by Cardinal Morton to the king, supposed to have died shortly after. N. Van Aelst engraved Henry VII., who, in the words of the old English version of the Virgin and Child' of Giulio Romano in the Dresden GalBacon's Life of Henry, "much phantasied and more favoured lery, a Venus and Adonis' after Ghigi, and some other works, this Legate Adrian, insomuch as he was his orator and solicited but the larger part of the prints which bear his name, and all his cause, both to Innocent and also to Alexander VI., bishops those which have formis added, were either merely published by of Rome. And after this for his diligent service, he so loved him or engraved by pupils and journeymen under his direction, and favoured him that he made him Bishop of Hereford (1502), as is the custom now-a-days with wood engravers. This kind of and shortly after (1503), that resigned and given over, he pro-art-manufacture was extensively practised in the latter part of moted him to the bishopric of Bath and Wells." Adrian in his the 16th century, and N. Van Aelst was one of its most sucvisits to Rome had received many marks of the pontifical favour; cessful practitioners. he was made papal collector in England; prothonotary, secre tary, and treasurer to Pope Alexander VI.; and now, to crown his English honours, he was made cardinal. Yet it is of Cardinal di Corneto, as he is henceforth usually called, that the story is told of his being invited to a banquet at the Vatican, when the vessel, by means of which the pope intended to poison the cardinal, was, by the negligence of a servant or the contrivance of Adrian, who suspected the design, taken by the pope himself, and caused his death, Aug. 18, 1503. The story is probably untrue, but it is illustrative of the character of the times, the place, and the men, that it could be generally repeated and believed. Under Pius III. and Julius II. Adrian lived in good repute, was known as an accomplished orator, and, himself an elegant writer, as the patron of learned men. By Pope Leo X. he was regarded with disfavour and suspicion. On the discovery of the alleged conspiracy of Cardinal Petrucci, June, 1517, Adrian was one of three cardinals whom the pope charged with complicity. Petrucci fled, but being induced to return to Rome under a safe conduct, solemnly confirmed by the verbal assurance of the pope, was seized, consigned to prison, and there strangled. Adrian and his associates were persuaded to confess their guilt, and were pardoned, on condition of paying a fine of 25,000 ducats. They paid that sum; but were then told that the fine was to be paid not jointly, but by each. Adrian resolved to escape from Rome. He succeeded, it was said, in doing so; but what became of him afterwards was never known. A report appears to have been circulated that he was murdered by his servant for the sake of the gold he had taken with him to assist his flight. The pope, through Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, a few months later, formally announced to Cardinal Wolsey the vacancy of the bishopric; and Henry VIII. at once conferred it upon Wolsey. Adrian, himself an excellent Latinist, was one of the first and most successful advocates of the adoption of a purer and more classical Latin style. He wrote 'De Vera Philosophia ex quatuor doctoribus Ecclesiæ,' Bologna, 1507; 'De Sermone latino et modo latine loquendi,' Basel, 1513, and several times reprinted; 'De Venatione, et Julii III. iter;' and some Latin verses printed in the Carm. Illustr. Poet. Ital.,' tome v. ADUARTE, DIEGO, a Spanish friar, missionary, and historian, was born at Saragossa in 1569. Having joined an order of preaching friars, he went to the Philippines in 1594; and from that year till 1603 he went through a series of adventures which called forth indomitable firmness and perseverance. He learned the Chinese language so well as to be able to preach and catechise in it. He then accompanied Alonzo Ximenes, father provincial of his order, to Cambodia, with a large staff of assistant teachers; but a revolution in the country placed the Spaniards in great peril, and with difficulty they escaped to Cochin China. From thence they were speedily expelled; and Aduarte, while escaping, was wounded in a contest with a pirate. After recovering AERTSZ, RYKAERT, Dutch historical painter, was the son of a fisherman at Wyck in North Holland, where he was born in 1482. While yet a boy his leg was burned so severely that it was found necessary to amputate it, and hence he was afterwards known as Wooden-legged Dick (Ryk met de Stelt). To while away the time during his tedious convalescence, Ryk used to draw with charcoal the various objects about him, until he became so expert that his father was persuaded to place him with a painter. He was accordingly sent on his recovery to Jan Mostaert in Haarlem, under whom he worked for a considerable time, chiefly painting friezes and other decorations in private houses. From Haarlem he went to Antwerp, where he settled; acquired reputation; was elected a member of the Academy in 1520; and died at the ripe age of 95 in 1577. His principal work was a diptych, or rather the wings of an altar-piece, for the principal church at Haarlem, representing incidents in the life of Joseph. AERTSZEN, PIETER, called from his stature Long Peter, by the Italians Pietro Lungo, a celebrated Dutch historical painter, was the son of a stocking weaver at Amsterdam, where he was born in 1520. He was a pupil of Allard Claessen, and at the age of 18 had made himself known as a painter of homely interiors. But he abandoned this line and was employed by the civic authorities to paint a large altar-piece of the Death of the Virgin in the church of Our Lady at Amsterdam; another in four compartments representing the Annunciation, the Nativity, the Adoration of the Kings, and the Circumcision, for the new church in that city; an Adoration of the Magi for the new church at Delft, and one or two more, all of which were destroyed during the religious disturbances a few years later. He afterwards settled at Antwerp, where he was admitted a full member of the Academy of St. Luke, his name being entered in the books of the Academy as Langhe Peter, schilder. He was admitted burgher of Antwerp in 1552; married an aunt of his pupil, J. Buckelaer, and died at Amsterdam, June 2, 1573. One of the best of his small easel pictures, a Crucifixion, clearly painted and full of incident, is in the Antwerp Museum (No. 159). Three of his sons, PIETER (born 1540, died 1602); ALLARD (born about 1545, died 1604); and DIRK (born about 1550, killed at Fontainebleau in 1620), followed their father's profession and acquired some celebrity. Upsal University in the same year, and was elected foreign member of the Royal Society in 1798. Returning to Sweden in 1799, he remained there till his death, January 30, 1836. For a part of the time he was professor of materia medica and dietetics in the University of Upsal. Afzelius contributed many botanical papers to the Linnean Society of London and the Royal Academy of Stockholm. Besides his strictly scientific papers, he wrote a notice of the Life of Linnæus, with extracts from his Diary; Egenhändiga Anteckningar af Carl Linnæus om sig sjelf med Anmärkningar och Tillägg,' Upsal, 4to, 1823; of which a German translation by K. Lappe was published at Berlin in 1826. Two of his brothers distinguished themselves-JOHAN, born 1753, died May 20, 1837, as professor of chemistry in Upsal University; and PEHR, born 1760, died Dec. 2, 1839, professor of medicine at Upsal, and physician to the King at Stockholm, by whom he was ennobled. AGARDE, ARTHUR, styled by Camden Antiquarius insignis, was born about 1540 at Foston in Derbyshire. He was brought up to the law, but accepted a clerkship in the Exchequer Office, and in 1570 was made Deputy-Chamberlain of the Exchequer, a post he retained for 45 years. Having the charge of a large number of the national records, he now devoted himself to their study, and came to be regarded as one of the most accomplished antiquaries of the age, ranking in the estimation of his fellow-labourers along with his friend Sir Robert Cotton and Camden. Agarde was one of the original members of the Society of Antiquaries founded in 1572. Of the Collection of Curious Discourses, written by eminent Antiquaries,' published by Hearne, six are by Agarde-I. 'Opinion touching the Antiquity, Power, Order, State, Manner, Persons, and Proceedings of the High Court of Parliament in England;' 2. On the Question, Of what Antiquity Shires were in England?' 3. On the Dimensions of the Lands of England;' 4. The Authority, Office, and Privileges of Heraults in England;' 5. 'Of the Antiquity and Privileges of the Houses or Inns of Court, and of Chancery;' 6. 'On the Diversity of Names of this Island.' He also wrote a treatise on the meaning of the terms in Domesvalue; and a catalogue of the records under his charge, which was printed by the Record Commissioners, 'the Ancient Kalendars and Inventories of the Treasury of His Majesty's Exchequer, 1836. Agarde died August 22, 1615, and was interred in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey, by the door of the Chapter House. He is said to have left 20 volumes of his MS. collections to his friend Sir Robert Cotton, but they are not mentioned in the catalogue of the Cotton MSS. 6 AFFO, IRENEO, a distinguished critic, philologist, and historian, was born at Busseto, a small city which had once been the capital of the ancient Stato Pallavicino, on the 10th of December, 1741. His baptismal name was Davide, which he changed for Ireneo when, after prosecuting his studies at Bologna, and fulfilling a twelvemonth's novitiate at Busseto, he entered the Franciscan order, having just completed his twentieth year. In the beginning of May, 1767, he was appointed to the chair of philosophy of his order-the Minori Osservanti-at Ferrara; and about the middle of the same year was transferred in the same capacity to their convent at Parma. In 1768 the Duke of Parma promoted him to the chair of philosophy in the public school of Guastalla; the ecclesiastical and civil history of which he illustrated severally in his works, Antichità e pregj della Chiesa Guastallese,' 1744, and Memorie Istoriche di Guastalla dell' Origine sua fino al 1539,' in six books, 1775. The fame of these works, enhanced by that of his Poetical Dictionary, 'Dizionario precettivo, critico, e istorico, della Poesia volgare,' 8vo, Parma, 1777, procured for Affo, April 7, 1778, the appointment of sub-librarian of the Ducal library at Parma, which had been created in great measure by his friend Paciaudi, the principal librarian; to whose office, upon his death in February, 1785, Affo succeeded. The same year he commenced the publication of his enlarged history of Guastalla, in four volumes, entitled 'Istoria della città e ducato di Guastalla,' 4to, Guastalla, 1785-87; and in 1789 put forth the first volume of his biographical work of the writers and learned men of Parma, 'Memorie degli Scrittori et Letterati Parmigiani, Raccolte dal Padre Ireneo Affo, Minor Osservante, Bibliotecario di S. A. R., Profess. onor. di Storia nella R. Universita e Socio della R. Accad. delle Belle Arti in Parma,' 4to, Parma, 1789; of which four more volumes appeared before his death. The work has been since continued by Angelo Pezzana, one of Affo's successors in the office of librarian of the Parma library, who has devoted the whole of the sixth volume (Parma, 1825) to an elaborate bio-day Book (Cottonian Lib., Vit. C. ix.), but it is not of much graphy of Affo, and a catalogue raisonné of his works, printed and not printed, to the number of more than a hundred. In 1791, Affo published 'Saggio di Memorie sulla Tipografia Parmense del Secolo XV.'; in 1792, the first volume of his history of Parma, 'Storia della Città di Parma,' of which three more volumes were subsequently published; and in 1794, a Biography of Cardinal Pallavicino, the historian of the Council of Trent, 'Memorie della Vita e degli Studj del Card. Sforza Pallavicino.' Affo's death occurred May 14, 1797, of typhus fever, which attacked him whilst at his native town of Busseto, whither he had repaired for the sake of visiting a convent of his order; and the event was the occasion of a deep and a lively regret not in Parma alone, but in the whole of Italy, and indeed throughout the world of letters generally. He left behind him many memoirs, dissertations, and minor productions, some of which have been published since his death. The most remarkable of his works of posthumous issue, and one the publication of which was for a long time interdicted by the government of Parma, is his Life of Pier Luigi, which, completed in 1778, first saw the light under the care of Count P. Litta, in 1821, Vita di Pier Luigi Farnese, primo Duca di Parma,' Milan. Affo was a true lover of literature, warm-hearted, honest, and indefatigable; and he has done more than any other writer to illustrate the history of his native duchy of Parma in all its branches. It should perhaps be mentioned, to complete his distinctions, that in his youth he had cultivated Italian poetry, and especially that he was the author of some satirical sonnets, which he published under an assumed name, 'Sonetti pedanteschi di Don Polipodio Calabro Pedagogo.' AFZELIUS, ADAM, an eminent Swedish botanist, was born at Larg, in West Gothland, October 18, 1750. He studied under Linnæus at Upsal for several years; took his degree of magister philosophiæ in 1776; was appointed reader in Oriental literature in 1777, and demonstrator in botany in 1785-all at Upsal. In the last-named year he published, conjointly with Waldstrom, a treatise 'DeVegetabilibus Suecanis Observationes et Experimenta.' In 1789 he visited England and Scotland. After declining an invitation to join Lord Macartney's embassy to China, he went, in 1798, to Guinea and Sierra Leone, as botanist to the Sierra Leone Company. He made botanical collections in Africa, and wrote two reports to the Company on the natural productions of Sierra Leone. After his return he was made Secretary to the Swedish Embassy in 1797; received the diploma of M.D. from AGARDH, KARL ADOLF, a celebrated Swedish botanist, was born at Bastad, on the Gulf of Laholm, January 22, 1785, and completed his education in the University of Lund. From an early period he pursued the study of botany with great zeal, devoting his particular attention to the cryptogamia, in which he came to be regarded as the leading authority. In 1812 he was nominated professor of botany and rural economy in Lund University, but he also lectured on general economics. His thoughts having received a theological bent, he was ordained priest in 1816, and appointed to pastoral duty. At the same time he took an active part in politics, was elected deputy of his diocese in 1817 and 1823; and from his appointment in 1834 to the bishopric of Karlstad was a foremost Liberal in the Diet. But it is as a botanist, and chiefly by his writings on the Algae, that he acquired European celebrity. On this branch of the science he contributed a large number of papers to the Natural History societies, but he also published several distinct works. Of these the most important were his 'Species Algarum,' Lund, 3 vols., 8vo, 1820-28; Icones Algarum,' Lund, 1828-35; and 'Systema Algarum,' Lund, 1820; in which he not only embodied all that had been previously published on the subject, but added an immense body of original matter and developed a systematic arrangement, which, with some modifications, has since been very generally adopted. Another important work was his Lärobok i Botanik' (Handbook of Botany), 2 vols., Malmö, 1829-32; of which the first volume was translated into German by Mayer, and the second by Creplin. He also published a 'Memoir of Linnæus,' and some treatises on economics and theology. He died January 28, 1859. His son * JAKOB GEORG AGARDH, born at Lund in 1813, has successfully pursued his father's special study; succeeded him as professor of botany at Lund University in 1854, and has greatly increased his vast collection. His chief works are-Synopsis Generis Lupini,' Lund, 1835; 'Recensio Generis Pteredis', Lund, 1839;' Algae Maris Mediterranei et Adriatici,' Paris, 1842; 'In 1865. AGAS, RADULPH. Systemata Algarum hodierna adversaria,' Lund, 1845; Theoria systematis plantarum,' Lund, 1858; and 'Om Bank-väsendet och pennige-theorien,' edited by J. G. Agardh, 8vo, Stockholm, AGAS, RADULPH, or AGGAS, RALPH, the designer of the earliest published map of London, flourished in the last half of the 16th century. Agas is included by Walpole in his Catalogue of Engravers, but there is no evidence that he practised engraving, and the probability is that he did not. The actual engraver of the maps he published appears to have been Augustine Ryther. Agas was a land-surveyor, and resided at Stoke, near Nayland, Suffolk, but made occasional or periodical visits to London, and probably to Oxford and Cambridge, to receive commissions. By way of advertising his qualifications, he issued hand-bills, of one of which a copy is in the British Museum; and apparently with the same object he published a quarto pamphlet entitled A Preparative to platting of Landes and Tenements for Surueigh,' London, 1596. He had at this time "practised in survey more than forty years." A letter dated 1597, preserved among the Burghley Papers (Lansdowne MSS. vol. lxxxiv. No. 32), shows that he was then engaged in operations for improving the Fens. In 1593 he had addressed a memorial to Lord Burghley (preserved among the Lansd. MSS., vol. lxxiii. No. 29), which gives a curious and minute account of the improved method of land-surveying practised by him, and to the superiority of which he desires to call his lordship's attention. Agas's Map of London is rather a bird's-eye view of the "Which still he craves, although he be denied The 30th year of Elizabeth's reign began Nov. 17th, 1587, and it is quite clear that Agas had not published, and was not ready to publish, his map of London then. The copy in the Library of the City of London, Guildhall, appears to have been one of a new issue made in or about the first year of James I., 1603-4, the arms of James drawn with a pen being pasted over those of Elizabeth. Subsequent issues, with slight alterations and additions to the buildings, appear to have been made pretty frequently; and in the reign of William a copy, the size of the original, was engraved, apparently by one of the Dutch engravers then in England, on eight plates of pewter. This was published by Vertue in 1737, with his name attached, Vertue, Soc. Antiq. Lond. excudit,' from which Walpole concludes that he re-engraved it. Besides the maps of London and Oxford, Agas designed one of Cambridge; and Vertue mentions that he had seen a plan made by Agas in March, 1589, on a large sheet of vellum, of the town of Dunwich, in Suffolk, with the adjacent villages. The year of Agas's death is unknown, but, as we have seen above, he was living in 1597. AGELET, JOSEPH LE PAUTE D', French astronomer, was born at Thone-le-Long, near Montmédy, November 25, 1751, and studied astronomy under Lalande. In 1773 he joined Kerguelin's expedition to the Antarctic Seas, and on his return the following year, presented to the Academy of Sciences at Paris a journal of 1600 observations on planets and stars. In 1777 he was made professor of mathematics at the Ecole Militaire, and in 1785 was elected Member of the Academy of Sciences. In 1783 he presented Memoirs on the aphelion distance of Venus, and the length of the year. In 1785 he sailed with La Perouse on his ill-fated expedition. The last | letter received from him was dated from Botany Bay, March 1, 1788. His observations were lost with him, La Perouse having forbidden the communication of any during the voyage. AGOSTINI, LIONARDO, a distinguished Italian antiquary, BIOG. DIV.SUP. was born at Siena near the end of the 16th century. At the beginning of the pontificate of Urban VII., 1623, Agostini was at Rome, in the service of Cardinal Francesco Barberini, the pope's nephew, engaged in collecting works of art for the Barberini palace. By Pope Alexander VII. he was appointed pontifical antiquary and commissary or examiner of antiquities in Rome and Latium. Whilst thus employed he gave to the world the works by which he is now remembered: 'La Sicilia di Filippo Paruta, con la Giunta di Lionardo Agostini,' fol. Rome, 1649. Paruta's work appeared originally in 1612; Agostini figured 400 additional medals, but gave no descriptions; these were afterwards added by Meier in his edition of 1697, but are of no value. The best edition of the work is that of Sigebert Havercamp, 3 vols. fol. Leyden, 1723. Agostini's other work was 'Le Gemme Antiche Figurate di L. A., con le annotazioni del. Sig. Gio. Pietro Bellori,' 4to, Rome, 2 parts, 1657 and 1670; the first part is said to have been originally published in 1636, though a copy does not appear to have been traced in any of the great libraries. The two parts were reprinted together at Rome, 1686, with a preface by Marinella. From the preface we learn that Agostini had been some years dead he appears not to have long survived the publication of the edition of 1670, when he speaks of himself as already very advanced in years. The Gemme Antiche' is chiefly valuable for the engravings by Galestruzzi, and the edition of 1670 is much the most prized, the plates having been retouched for the edition of 1686, and again for the augmented edition, by De Rossi and Maffei, of 1707. A Latin version by Gronovius appeared at Amsterdam in 2 vols. 4to, 1685. AGOSTINO DI MUSI, or, as he is usually but incorrectly termed, AGOSTINO VENEZIANO, a celebrated early Italian engraver, was born towards the close of the 15th century. His earliest signed plates are after Campagnolo and Albert Dürer, the latter bearing the date of 1514. In 1515 he was in Florence, where he engraved several of the designs of Baccio Bandinelli and A. del Sarto. Agostino now repaired to Rome, where he remained till the death of Raffaelle in 1520, engaged with Marco di Ravenna, assisting Marcantonio Raimondi in engraving the well-known plates after the great painter. Under Marcantonio, Agostino greatly improved his manner, but he never acquired the largeness and brilliancy of his master. Perhaps his best work of this period is the Christ bearing his Cross,' after Raffaelle. After the sack of Rome, 1527, Agostino fled to Mantua, where he engraved some of Giulio Romano's designs, under that master's supervision. Returning to Rome about 1530, he continued busily employed with his burin, but during the latter years of his life (1534-36) he seems to have been exclusively occupied upon portraits, and among these are some of his best works, such as Pope Paul III., 1534; Barbarossa; Francis I. of France; Charles V.; and Ferdinand I. Agostino's plates are very numerous, but good impressions are scarce, and highly prized. Heinecken and Bartsch have published full catalogues of them. Passavant (Peintre-Graveur, vol. vi. pp. 51–66,) gives a list of 188, arranged under Scriptural subjects; virgins and saints; historical subjects; mythological and allegorical subjects; fantasy and genre subjects; portraits; architecture, vases and ornaments. The British Museum possesses many fine impressions of his works. Agostino's engravings have the immense advantage of being from the greatest painters and designers that Italy has produced, and executed under their immediate direction; but they are inferior as engravings to those of Marcantonio and the other chief masters of the art. Agostino drew but indifferently, and his original designs are decidedly poor. AGRICOLA, GEORG, an eminent mineralogist, was born at Glaucha, near Meissen in Saxony, March 24, 1490. Having studied medicine at Leipzig and in Italy, he commenced practice as a physician at Joachimsthal, in Bohemia, in 1529. Geology and mineralogy being his favourite studies, he removed in 1531 to the mining district of Chemnitz, in Saxony, where he was appointed professor of chemistry. The Duke of Saxony gave him a pension to enable him to devote most of his time to researches on the geology and mineral resources of that country. In the year 1546 he published three works-' De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum ;' De Natura eorum quæ effluunt e Terra;' and 'De Natura Fossilium.' These works, written in elegant Latin, treated of minerals, lavas, bitumens, springs, &c., and discussed various theories concerning their formation. Not only was Agricola the first mineralogist of his day, but he raised mineralogy to a science. His other more important works were-on fossils, De Animantibus Subterraneis,' 8vo, Basel, 1549; and on metallurgy, 'De Re D 35 AGRICOLA, JOHANN. AGRICOLA, MICHAEL. 36 German nationality. He was the first to make a collection of Metallica, published with a new edition of the former, folio, Basel, 1556, and copiously illustrated with woodcuts on mining and metallurgy. These works have been several times reprinted; an edition of his mineralogical works in German, by E. Lehmann, was published in 3 vols. 8vo, Freyberg, 1806-10. Agri-lished in Low German, and a few months after, in High German cola also wrote on classical subjects and on some passing matters of controversy, but only his mineralogical writings are now of any interest or value. Agricola died at Chemnitz, November 21, 1555. Owing to religious bigotry his remains could not be interred at Chemnitz; they were buried at Zeitz. AGRICOLA, JOHANN, a Saxon divine, one of the most distinguished German writers of the 16th century, and the reputed founder of Antinomianism, was born on the 20th of April, 1492, at Eisleben, the native place of Martin Luther. His real name was Johann Schnitter, Schneider, or Sneider, which, according to the fashion of the age, he Latinized as Agricola; whilst, from his birthplace, he sometimes called himself "Magister Eisleben," or "Magister Islebius." At the university of Wittenberg, where he studied theology and philosophy, he was the pupil and friend of Luther, whose opinions he enthusiastically embraced, and whom, in 1519, he accompanied to Leipzig, to the great meeting of German divines which is known by the name of the "Leipziger Religionsgespräch." To this assembly Agricola acted as secretary, and received, along with Melanchthon, who was also present, the degree of baccalaureus from the university of Leipzig. For several years he worked in perfect harmony with Luther, by whom he was deputed, in 1525, to settle the ecclesiastical affairs of Frankfurt-on-the-Main. After a month's stay at this place, he visited his native town of Eisleben, where he was appointed preacher of the Nicolai Kirche, and soon after was made court preacher to John, Elector of Saxony, in which capacity he was present, in 1526, at the Diet of Spire, and took a part in the presentation of the Augsburg Confession in 1530. In the year last named he became court preacher to Count Albert of Mansfeld. The name of Agricola occurs immediately after that of Melanchthon amongst the signitaries of the Schmalkalden Articles of Faith, A.D. 1537; in which year he again went to Wittenberg. It was now that he began to carry out the great Lutheran doctrine of justification by faith, to the extreme of asserting the indifference of the law, and its inapplicability to the Christian as an authoritative rule of life and conduct. He held that nothing was required for salvation but faith in Christ, and repudiated the obligation even of the Ten Commandments. Obedience was not due to the law, but only to the gospel. This cardinal doctrine, on which other subordinate ones depended, received the adhesion of many of the Protestant divines, who, on account of their tenets, were called Antinomians. The disputes which followed, and the bitter animosity of Luther against the too logical Agricola, had the effect of compelling the latter, in 1542, to flee for protection to Berlin, where Joachim II., Elector of Brandenburg, conferred upon him the offices of court preacher and superintendentgeneral (archdeacon), which he held till his death, September 22, 1566. The Elector of Brandenburg endeavoured to bring about a reconciliation between Agricola and his former friends; but was unable to effect anything more favourable to his protégé than that Agricola should alternatively return to await the decision of judges appointed by the Elector of Saxony, or deliver in writing a recantation of his errors and of the injurious aspersions he had cast upon Luther. It was with the second condition that Agricola elected to comply, and he accordingly published at Berlin a volume in which he asked pardon of those whom he had offended, and especially of Luther, whom he designated as "that man of God." But Luther was little moved by protestations to which he did not attach the credit of sincerity, and Agricola remained at Berlin for the rest of his life. The versatility, fickleness, and ambition of Agricola had the result of inducing harsh judgments upon his character. His heresy was exaggerated and misrepresented; the heartiness of his recantation was denied by his opponents; and the part which he took, conjointly with Julius Phlug and Michael Heldingus in drawing up the famous Interim' of Augsburg (1548)-which was conceived in a spirit of accommodation that satisfied neither Catholics nor Protestants-laid him open to unwarranted suspicions, and even to accusations of a desire to return to the Church of Rome. Besides his numerous writings in exegetical and controversial theology-some of which are in Latin, but the greater part in German-Agricola has left behind him several works which have tended, in a degree second only to those of Luther himself, to elevate and fix the German language, and to consolidate 6 6 AGRICOLA, MICHAEL, one of the early Swedish reformers, and celebrated as the translator of the New Testament into Finnish, was born at the village of Torsby, in the parish of Pernå, in Nyland, about the beginning of the 16th century. He was one of the eight students whose education at some foreign university, and especially at Wittenberg, was imposed by Gustavus Vasa as a tax upon the revenues of the just constituted Protestant see of Abo. When, in 1539, Agricola returned from the University of Wittenberg, where he had studied theology and medicine, he was the bearer of a letter from Luther, in which he was recommended to the King of Sweden as a youth of excellent learning, manners, and capacity, who was likely to be of service. His first appointment, conferred upon him in the same year, was the rectorship of the school at Abo; and conflicting assertion makes it probable, but less than certain, that shortly afterwards he was sent by Gustavus as missionary to Lapland. In 1548 he was appointed assistant to Martin Skytte, the first bishop of Abo, on whose death, in 1554, he was advanced to the superintendence of the diocese, less the diocese of Wiborg, which, previously a part of that of Abo, was now conferred upon Justen, the successor of Agricola in the rectorship of the school at Abo. Two years after, Agricola accompanied the Archbishop of Upsal, Laurentius Petri, to negotiate with Ivan Vassilevich, Grand Duke of Muscovy, who was at war with Sweden, and to hold conferences with the Russian clergy. A peace was concluded, but on his way home Agricola sickened and died, in the village of Kyroniem, in the parish of Vikyrkio, on the 7th of April, 1557. The greatest monument of the zeal and learning of Michael Agricola is his Finnish translation of the New Testament, the publication of which assisted considerably in the dissemination of the principles of the Reformation. The work was printed at Stockholm, in quarto, in the year 1548. A Finnish translation of the Book of Psalms, and other portions of the Old Testament, and the production of a Finnish Prayer Book, are also referred to him. He translated, into Swedish, the 'Sea-Laws,' or maritime code, of Wisby; a work which was not published till 1689, when it appeared at Stockholm under the editorial care of John Hadorph. AINMULLER, MAXIMILIAN EMANUEL. 38 to Ferdinand Bol, who died some years before Gay was born. A portrait of the poet Thomson in this exhibition was said to be "by William Aikman," but was really the portrait of the portly bard by Peyton, which Lord Chatham described as beastly like." Aikman's portrait of Thomson is a very different one. His own portrait belongs to the National Gallery of Scotland; another is in the Gallery of Painters' Portraits at Florence. AILRED, or ALURED, of RIEVAULX, English abbot, saint, and historian, was born about 1109, at Hexham, Northumberland, and was brought up at the court of David, king of AIKIN, LUCY, daughter of John Aikin, M.D., the author of Scotland, with whose son he is said to have been educated. 'Evenings at Home,' and sister of Arthur Aikin [E. C. vol. i. Capgrave states that he became a favourite of the king, who col. 70], was born at Warrington, November 6, 1781. When she offered him a Scotch bishopric, which he refused, and entered was three years old her father removed to Yarmouth, where he as a monk the recently-founded Cistercian Abbey of Rievaulx in practised as a physician till 1792, when he settled in London. the North Riding of Yorkshire, where, on account of his studious In 1797, on account of his failing health, he gave up his profes-habits and piety, he was entrusted with the superintendence of sion and retired to Stoke Newington, where he continued, till the novices. Some of his early biographers state that he left his death in 1822, busily occupied in the various literary works Rievaulx to become abbot of Revesby in Lincolnshire; but this noticed in the article above referred to, and in which Miss Aikin appears to be an error arising from the similarity of the names. rendered him valuable assistance. She had received a careful At any rate he was elected Abbot of Rievaulx in 1146, and did training, and, though in infancy called "the little dunce," soon not again leave it, except to attend a meeting of the chapter of exhibited unusual intelligence, obtained a wide acquaintance his order at Citeaux; to visit Westminster in order to assist at with historical literature, and was familiar with the best Italian the translation of the relics of Edward the Confessor; to make and French authors. Her first publication was a translation a missionary journey, in 1164, to the wild Pictish population of of 'The Adventures of Rolando,' which was long a popular book Galloway in the south-west of Scotland; or on some like pious with young people. In 1814 she published Lorimer; a Tale.' duty. During the last ten years of his life he was sorely afflicted She also wrote Poetical Epistles to Women,' and various occa- with stone and gout. He died January the 12th, 1166, at Riesional verses, as well as numerous articles in the 'Annual Re- vaulx, where he was interred. When Leland wrote, his tomb gister' and other publications edited by her father. These, was richly adorned with gold and silver ornaments, but no trace however, were only preparatory to the series of works on which is left of it now. Abbot Ailred enjoyed a high reputation for her claim to remembrance rests:-Memoirs of the Court of learning, piety, self-denial, and the austerity with which he Queen Elizabeth,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1818; 'Memoirs of the Court of governed his monastery. During his abbacy, Rievaulx increased King James the First, 2 vols. 8vo, 1822; and 'Memoirs of the greatly in numbers, wealth, and character: at his death it conCourt of King Charles the First, 2 vols. 8vo, 1833; all of which, tained 150 monks and 50 lay brethren. Ailred was canonised but particularly the first two, are works of real value, though of in 1191. course suffering from the deficiency in the curious private and personal matter since brought to light in the Calendars and other publications of the Rolls Office, and also perhaps from the author not having seen the importance of the illustrations to be obtained from the ephemeral literature of the several reigns, and which Macaulay has turned to such excellent account in his history. But the works are carefully and well written, tolerably free from prejudice, and very interesting. Her latest work, 'The Life of Joseph Addison,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1843, was less successful, and had the misfortune to be severely criticised by Macaulay. In 1824 she had published the literary remains and a pleasing biography of her father, Memoirs of John Aikin, M.D., with a Selection of his Miscellaneous Pieces, Biographical, Moral, and Critical,' 2 vols. 8vo. Shortly after her father's death, Miss Aikin removed to Hampstead, and there, with a brief interval, she spent the last forty years of her useful and blameless life, the centre of a circle of attached friends, and there died on the 29th of January, 1864. Her grave, in the old churchyard of Hampstead, is next to that of Joanna Baillie, for many years her beloved friend and neighbour. In 1864 was published a volume of Memoirs, Miscellanies, and Letters of Lucy Aikin,'-the letters chiefly to Dr. Channing, and extending over a period of sixteen years,-with a brief memoir of Miss Aikin by Mr. P. H. Le Breton, from which most of the above facts have been taken. AIKMAN, WILLIAM, a celebrated Scotch portrait-painter, was born in 1682 at Cairney in Aberdeenshire. He was intended for the law, but, preferring painting, became a pupil of Sir John Medina, then the leading painter in Scotland. In 1707 he sold an estate he had inherited at Arbroath, and went to Rome, where he stayed three years studying the works of the great masters. He then visited Turkey, and returned by way of Italy and London to Scotland, 1712, where he found a warm patron in the Duke of Argyll. Eventually, about 1723, he settled in London, and soon obtained a good share of patronage. But his health gave way and, after a lingering illness, he died in June, 1731, at his house in Leicester Fields (afterwards Leicester Square), leaving unfinished a large painting of the royal family. Aikman was a man of literary tastes and social habits, and numbered among his friends Sir Godfrey Kneller, Swift, Pope, Allan Ramsay, and James Thomson. In the Second Exhibition of National Portraits, 1867, were paintings by him of himself, William Carstairs, and Fletcher of Saltoun, all characteristic, and evidently faithful though somewhat coarse likenesses. His portrait of the poet Gay was esteemed one of his most successful works. This was in the same exhibition, but by an odd blunder was ascribed As a writer of history, Ailred does not hold a foremost place. He is addicted to legend, fond of trivial matters, and has little critical discernment. Yet his works are not without a positive value, while incidentally they afford much insight into the life and modes of thought of the latter half of the 12th century. The chief of his historical compositions are-De Sanctis Ecclesiæ Hagustaldensis et eorum Miraculis liber,' an interesting account of Hexham Church and of Sts. Acca and Alemund, bishops of Hexham, printed in Mabillon, Acta Sanctorum,' vol. iii. i. p. 204, ed Venet.; Vita Niniani, Pictorum Australium Apostoli,' an account of Ninian and his conversion of the Picts, full of alleged miracles, printed in Capgrave's 'Nova Legenda Angliæ :' 'Vita et Miracula Confessoris Christi Edwardi Regis Anglorum,' written on occasion of the translation of the Confessor's relics, printed in Gibbon's 'Opera Divi Aelridi Rhievallensis,' Douay, 1616-31, and reprinted in the 'Magna Bibl. Veterum Patrum,' Cologne, 1618; in the 'Acta Sanctorum,' Jan. 1, 292; and in Migne's Patrologia.' The metrical Vita S. Edwardi Confessoris, Regis Angliæ,' in six books, is also attributed to Ailred, but seemingly without sufficient authority: on both these Lives the reader should consult Mr. Luard's Preface to the 'Lives of Edward the Confessor,' published among the Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland.' 'Eulogium Davidis, Regis Scotia ;' printed in Twysden's Decem Scriptores,' and in Pinkerton's Vita Sanctorum Scotia,' and by Fordun, but with some omissions by each: 'De Genealogia Regum Anglorum,' of little if any historical value, but a curious work; partly printed in Twysden's 'Decem Scriptores: Vita S. Margaritæ Reginæ Scotia'Chronicon ab Adam ad Henricum I.:' and several more of which only the titles are known. Ailred also wrote a 'Compendium Speculi Charitatis;' De Vinculo Perfectionis;' 'De Lectione Evangelica;' De Natura Animæ ;''De Amicitia, sive Dialogus inter Hominem et Rationem,' a Book of Homilies; and several other theological treatises. A complete collection of his previously printed works is given in vol. cxcv. of the Abbé Migne's 'Patrologia Cursus completus.' For special information respecting any of Ailred's historical writings, the reader should consult Mr. T. Duffus Hardy's 'Descriptive Catalogue of Materials relating to the History of Great Britain and Ireland,' vol. i. p. 638; vol. ii. pp. 247 and 293, and the references there given. *AINMULLER, MAXIMILIAN EMANUEL, a distinguished painter on glass, was born at Munich, February 14, 1807. He was intended for a learned career, but by the advice of Gärtner, the architect, who had detected his peculiar talent, he was induced to make decorative art, and particularly that of the medieval German artists, his study; and later, at the instigation |