JEWS. Spanish persecutions. They are numerous in Fez and Marocco, though they are not always free from the perils of Mohammedan fanaticism. In Egypt and Nubia, they are few; in Abyssinia, more numerous; and it is ascertained that they have even made their way into the heart of Africa; they exist in Sudan, and are also found further south. America, too, has invited their spirit of enterprise. In the United States, as in Great Britain, they enjoy absolute liberty. They have been in Brazil since 1625, and in Cayenne since 1639, and are also settled in some parts of the West Indies. The entire number of J. in the world is reckoned variously between 3 and 15 millions. Taking the former estimate, about 1,700,000 belong to Russian, Austrian, and Prussian Poland; about 600,000 to Germany; about 240,000 to Hungary and Transylvania; about 200,000 to Galicia; about 300,000 to Turkey; about 47,000 to Italy; about 30,000 to Great Britain; Asia, about 138,000; Africa, about 504,000; and America, about 30,000. The whole of Europe is supposed to contain about 24 millions. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE-Language. Among the Semitic family of languages, the Hebrew (called in the Old Testament, the speech of Canaan; in the later portions of the same book, the speech of Judæa; and first in the Chaldee targums, the Sacred Language, or rather the language of the Sanctuary and things connected with it-as the law [Mishna], the prayers, &c.) is one of the oldest, and in regard to strength, refinement, and elaborate completeness of grammatical structure, one of the most remarkable. (Its chief characteristics will be found noticed under SEMITIC LANGUAGES.) Yet it is neither the oldest of Semitic dialects, nor, as was long believed, the first of all human languages. Once identical with the Phoenician, it was adopted by Abraham and his family in Palestine. The peculiar religious and moral notions of the Hebrews could not but impress upon it by degrees a distinct character, and thus Hebrew became a distinct dialect. Although the Sacred writings are the oldest Semitic works which we possess, there is yet, except a few archaisms, hardly any trace of the primitive state of the Hebrew language preserved in them; they belong to periods when it was nearly as fully formed and developed as in the time of the exile. The differences in style, manner, and idiom in the different books, must rather be traced to the individualities of the various writers. In general, we distinguish two distinct periods the golden age, up to the Babylonian exile, when, except a few Egyptian words, no foreign admixture mars the purity of the language; the second from the exile downwards, when Persian and Aramaic elements had largely been introduced. As we find it in the Bible, the Hebrew is a poor language enough; yet there is a sublime grandeur, and, in the provinces of religion and agriculture, also a richness inherent in it which surpasses almost every ancient and modern language. It is hardly to be presumed, in the absence of distinct traces, that there should have been, within the small compass of Palestine, room for several dialects. The different pronunciation of the Shin alluded to in Judges xii. must have been only a solitary peculiarity of the Ephraimites, as, at a later period, the Galileans, and also the inhabitants of Jerusalem, were known for their faulty pronunciation, as shewn m several passages of the New Testament and the Talmud. The Hebrew character still universally employed in writing, and called square, Assyrian or Babylonian character, first takes the place, at an uncertain period after the exile, of the older national alphabetic character, which was common in the age of Moses, and in any case was similar to the old Phoenician. A grammatical treatment of Hebrew first commenced after the language ceased to be spoken by the people. The vocalisation and accentuation of the text originated in the 6th and 7th centuries after the time of Christ (see MASORA). The J. made the first attempt at a system of grammar about the dawn of the 10th c., after the example of the Arabians, and originally even in the Arabian language. Rabbi Saadia Gaon (died 942 A. D.), Jehuda Chajug (circa 1050 A. D.), Abraham- benEsra (circa 1150 A. D.), and David Kimchi (circa 1190-1200) are held in classic repute as grammarians. The Hebrew dictionary of the latter was long considered the best that had been executed. The founder of the study of Hebrew among Christians was the famous Johann Reuchlin (died 1522 A. D.), who, however, like the grammarians of the next age, Buxtorf and others, strictly adhered to the Jewish tradition and method. A new era began when the study of the other members of the Semitic family of languages, the Syriac, the Arabic, and the Ethiopic, enlarged the Hebraist's field of view; the heralds of this era were the German scholars, Alb. Schultens (died 1750) and Nik. W. Schröder (died 1798), who sought to remedy the one-sided defective method into which the so-called Dutch school fell by its too exclusive regard for Arabic. Gesenius, especially, along with a comprehensive and due consideration of all the allied languages, devoted his attention to the critical observation and exposition of the individual grammatical facts, and a more just and harmonious explanation of them. Since then, Ewald (q. v.), who treats the Hebrew language as an organism after the historico-genetic method, has carried the study still further, and in some measure superseded Gesenius. Ewald's Grammatik der Hebr. Sprache (Leip. 1844); Gesenius, Hebräische Grammatik (Leip. 1813), the 16th edition by Rödiger (Leip. 1851); are the best known grammars. The most comprehensive Hebrew dictionary is that by Gesenius, entitled Thesaurus Linguæ Hebraica (Leip. 1829-1842); the best of the smaller lexicons are Gesenius's Hebr. und Chald. Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament (2 vols. Leip. 1810-1812; 4th ed. 1834); Winer's Lexicon Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum (Leip. 1828); and Fürst's Hebr. und Chald. Handwörterbuch (Leip. 1857-1861). It is Literature. The extraordinary influence which the religion of the Hebrews has exercised on Christian and Mohammedan nations, has given a universal significance to their ancient literature. In antiquity and credibility, in the religiousness of its form and the vigour of its poetry, it surpasses the literature of any other pre-Christian people, and thus constitutes both the most remarkable monument and the most authentic source of the early history and spiritual development of the human race. true, however, that only a comparatively scanty portion of it has come down to the present day, and even the contents of what is extant have by no means remained unaltered in the lapse of ages. It is quite certain that the Hebrews, in the earliest times, only engraved or cut out on stone, metal, or wood what is said to have been executed in writing; nor is there any trace of a material adapted for the record of lengthened compositions before the period of David, and even then the writing of books was still a matter of rare occurrence. Besides, several writings of the Hebrews, held to be of ancient date, are believed to betray a later origin than is assigned to them by their contents, their mode of representation, and the character of the language; so that, in truth, we possess nothing which, in its original shape, reaches further back than the JEWS. above-mentioned age. Such being the case, we must recognise not only the internal arrangement, but a good deal also of the contents of the Hebrew writings, as a later elaboration. That criticism has discovered, as it believes, here and there traces of much later hands than those to whom tradition ascribes the authorship of the particular works, does not necessarily always throw discredit on the incidents narrated, nor destroy the value of that peculiar spirit by which they are characterised. The composition of the extant works in Hebrew Literature proper would, on this view, extend over a period of nearly 900 years-viz., from the times of David to those of the Maccabees. This period was preceded by a preparatory one of sagas, songs, fragmentary historical notices, inscriptions, laws, and probably also priestly registers. The nature and contents of the particular writings are determined by the changing fortunes of the people, who were at first strong and flourishing; then disrupted and weakened; then held in subjection by Assyrian, Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek, and Syrian rulers; and, finally, once more independent under native princes. Nevertheless, the prevalent ideathe basis, so to speak, of the whole Hebrew literature, looked at from the merely human point of view-is a passionate enthusiasm for independence, and for the preservation of a nationality founded on their law and history; hence its patriotism is of a profoundly religious character. The law and the doctrine are the word of God;' the Hebrews are the people of God,' his chosen people;' their fortunes are, in quite a special sense, providences;' and their poetry has God or the nation for its constant theme. In a certain sense, therefore, as we might expect, all the productions of the Hebrew muse shew a marked similarity to each other; still they can be arranged, according to form and contents, under the five heads-law, prophecy, history, lyric poetry, and speculation. (For a special account of these, see the articles on the separate books of the Old Testament; also BIBLE, PENTATEUCH, &c.) The same epoch in which took place the transition from Hebraism to Judaism-the epoch of the captivity was also that which marked the commencement of Jewish literature, properly so called. Founded on the earlier and more creative Hebrew, and for the most part written in the same language, it is yet qualified by the presence of religious conceptions borrowed from the Persians, of Greek wisdom, Roman law, and, at a later period, of Arabic poetry and philosophy, and of European science; though everything is strictly subordinated to the great ideas of the ancient faith. Since the return from exile, the Jewish-also, but erroneously, called the Rabbinical literature has, without the slightest external encouragement, actively taken part in the cultivation of the human mind; and in the results of this activity, which are still far from being duly appreciated, there lie concealed the richest treasures of centuries. Jewish literature has been divided chronologically into nine periods. The first period extends to 143 B. C. After the return from exile, the Jewish people naturally enough became animated by an intense nationality of feeling they had nearly lost name, country, life; and now that these were restored again, they strenuously resolved never more to place them in jeopardy. Guided by Ezra, the intellect of the nation began to exhibit surpassing reverence for the Pentateuch and the Prophets. Expositions and additions to the earlier history (Midrashim), as well as Greek translations, were executed, and several of the Hagiographa-such as particular psalms, the so-called Proverbs of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, the Books of Chronicles, portions of Ezra and Nehemiah were written. To this period also, if to any, must belong the uncertain performances of the Great Synagogue (q. v.), a body the existence of which has, as indicated above, been doubted by some early critics, but which is now established beyond any doubt. To this the work of completing the canon of the Old Testament is chiefly ascribed. Towards its close (190–170 B. C.), several writers appear in propria persona, as, for instance, Sirach and Aristobulus. The doctors of whom the Great Synagogue chiefly consisted were called Soferim (Scribes), and the Aramaic finally became the popular dialect of Palestine. The second period extends from 143 B. c. to 135 A. D. The Midrash (q. v.), or the inquiry into the meaning of the sacred writings, was divided into Halacha (q. v.) and Hagada: the former considered the improvement of the law, with a view to practical results; the latter, the essence of the religious and historical interpretations. At first, both were the oral deliverances of the Soferim, but gradually written memorials made their appearance. The public interpretation of the Scripture in schools and synagogues, the independence of the sanhedrim, the strife of sects, and the influences of Alexandrian culture, furthered this development. To this period also belong various Greek, but not, as is still erroneously supposed by some, the written Targums or Aramaic Versions of the Bible (see TARGUMS), which sprang at a much later period from oral translations of the Pentateuch in the synagogues instituted after the return from the exile; further the whole of the Apocrypha (q. v.), and the earliest Christian writings, which are at least the productions of men nurtured in the principles of Judaism, and which contain many traces of Judaistic culture, feeling, and faith. It was also characterised by the drawing up of prayers, scriptural expositions, songs, and collections of proverbs. The poet (not the prophet) Ezekiel, the author of the first book of the Maccabees, Jason, Josephus, Philo, Johannes (see above), are names specially worthy of mention; so also are the doctors of the oral law-Hillel (q. v.), Shamai, Jochanan-ben-Saccai, Gamaliel, Eleazarben-Hyrcan, Joshua-ben-Chananja, Ishmael, Akiba, and others of like eminence. Rabbi (Master), Talmid Chacham (Disciple of Wisdom), were titles of honour given to those expert in a knowledge of the law. Besides the Maccabean coins, Greek and Latin inscriptions belonging to this period are extant. The third period reaches from 135 to 475 A. D. Instruction in the Halacha and Hagada now became the principal employment of the flourishing schools in Galilee, Syria, Rome, and since 219 A. D., in Babylonia; the most distinguished men were the masters of the Mishna (q. v.) and the Talmud (q. v.)-viz., Eleazar-ben-Jacob, Jehuda, Jose, Meir, Simeon-ben-Jochai, Jehuda the Holy, Nathan, Chija, Rab, Samuel, Jochanan, Hunna, Rabba, Rava, Papa, Ashe, and Abina. Besides expositions, additions to Sirach, ethical treatises, stories, fables, and history were also composed; the prayers were enriched, the Targum to the Pentateuch and the Prophets completed, and the calendar fixed by Hillel the second, 340 A. D. After the suppression of the academies in Palestine, those of Persia-viz., at Sura, Pumbeditha, and Nehardea-became the centre of Jewish literary activity. On Sabbaths and festal days, the people heard, in the schools and places for prayer, instructive and edifying discourses. Of the biblical literature of the Greek J., we have only fragments, such as those of the versions of Aquila and Symmachus. With this period terminates the age of direct tradition. The fourth period (from 475 to 740 A.D.). By this time, the J. had long abandoned the use of JEWS. The greatest part of the Feast Day prayers was completed before Maimonides. Many of the works, however, produced between 740 and the close of this period are lost. Hebrew, and instead had adopted the language of whatever country they happened to dwell in. During the 6th c. the Babylonian Talmud was concluded, the Palestinian Talmud having been redacted about a hundred years before. Little remains of the The seventh period (from 1204 to 1492 A.D.) labours of the Jewish physicians of the 7th c., or bears manifest traces of the influence exercised by of the first Geonim or presidents of the Babylonian Maimonides. Literary activity shewed itself partly schools, who first appear 589 A.D. On the other in the sphere of theologico-exegetic philosophy, hand, from the 6th to the 8th centuries, the Masora partly in the elaboration of the national law. With was developed in Palestine (at Tiberias); and, the growth of a religious mysticism, there also besides a collection of the earlier Haggadas (e. g., sprung up a war of opinions between Talmudists, Bereshith rabba), independent commentaries were Philosophers, and Cabbalists. The most celebrated likewise executed, as the Pesikta, the Pirke of J. of this period lived in Spain; later, in Portugal, Eliezer (700 A. D.), &c. See MIDRASH; HAGGADA. Provence, and Italy. To Spain belongs (in the In the fifth period (from 740 to 1040 A.D.), the 13th c.) the poet Jehuda Charisi, &c. In the 15th c., Arabs, energetic, brilliant, and victorious in litera- a decline is noticeable. Books written in Hebrew ture as in war, had appropriated to themselves were first printed in Spain at Ixar in Aragon the learning of Hindus, Persians, and Greeks, and (1485), at Zamora (1487), and at Lisbon (1489).— thus excited the emulation of the oriental J., among During this epoch, the chief ornaments of Jewish whom now sprung up physicians, astronomers, literature in Provence were Moses-ben-Abraham, grammarians, commentators, and chroniclers. Reli- David Kimchi, Jeruham, Farissol, Isaac Nathan, gious and historical Haggadas, books of morality, the author of the Hebrew Concordance.-In Italy, and expositions of the Talmud, were likewise com- Jewish scholars employed themselves with the posed. The oldest Talmudic compends belong to translation of Arabic and Latin works. Works of the age of Anan (circa 750 A. D.), the earliest writer an aesthetical character were written by Immanuelof the Karaite Jews. The oldest prayer-book was ben-Solomon, the author of the first Hebrew sondrawn up about 880 A.D.; and the first Talmudic nets; Moses de Rieti, who wrote a Hebrew Divina Dictionary about 900 A.D. The most illustrious Commedia, &c.-While France could shew only a Geonim of a later time were Saadia (died 941 A. D.), few notable authors, such as the collectors of the equally famous as a commentator and translator of Tosafot, Moses de Coucy, and Jehiel-ben-Joseph, Scripture into Arabic, a doctor of law, a grammarian, the poet and exegete Berachja, Germany produced theologian, and poet; Scherira (died 998), and his a multitude of writers on the law, such as Eleazar son Hai (died 1038), who was the author, among Halevi, Meyer from Rothenburg, Asher, Isserlin, other things, of a Dictionary. From Palestine came Lippmann. The most of the extant Hebrew the completion of the Masora and of the vowel- MSS. belong to this period; but a great part of system; numerous Midrashim, the Hagiographical medieval Jewish literature lies unprinted in Rome, Targums, and the first writings on theological Florence, Parma, Turin, Paris, Oxford, Leyden, cosmogony, were also executed there. From the Vienna, and Munich. 9th to the 11th c., Kairwan and Fez, in Africa, produced several celebrated Jewish doctors and authors. Learned rabbins are likewise found in Italy after the 8th c.-e. g., Julius in Pavia, &c. Bari and Otranto were at this time the great seats of Jewish learning in Italy. After the suppression of the Babylonian academies (1040), Spain became the central seat of Jewish literature. To this period belong the oldest Hebrew codices, which go back to the 9th century. Hebrew rhyme is a product of the 8th, and modern Hebrew prosody of the 10th century. The eighth period (1492 to 1755 A.D.) is not marked by much creative or spiritual force among the Jews. In Italy and the East (1492), in Ger many and Poland (1550), in Holland (1620), Jewish scholars worked printing-presses, while numerous authors wrote in Hebrew, Latin, Spanish, Portu guese, Italian, and Judæo-German. Some of the most eminent theologians, philosophers, jurists, his torians, mathematicians, poets, commentators, lexicographers, grammarians, &c., of this period were Isaac Abravanel, Elia Misrachi, I. Arama, J. Chabib, Elia Levita, Obadio Seforno, Joseph Cohen, Gedalja Jahia, Sal. Usque, Asaria de Rossi, David de Pomi, David Gans, Isaac Troki, I. Luria, J. Karo, M. Alshech, M. Jafe, J. Heller, J. Aboab, Manasse b. Israel, Dav. Conforte, Leo de Modena, B. Musaphia, J. Eybeschütz, D. Oppenheimer, J. Emden, M. C. Luzzatto, &c. The sixth period (from 1040 to 1204 A. D.) is the most splendid era of Jewish medieval literature. The Spanish J. busied themselves about theology, exegetics, grammar, poetry, the science of law, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, rhetoric, and medicine. They wrote sermons, and ethical and historical works. The languages employed were The ninth period extends from 1755 A. D. to the Arabic, Rabbinical Hebrew, and ancient or classical present time. Encouraged by the spirit of the Hebrew. We can only mention here the great 18th c., Moses Mendelssohn (q. v.) opened, to his doctor, Samuel Halevi (died 1055), &c.; and lastly, co-religionists, a new era, which, as in the middle the renowned Maimonides (q. v.), whose death closes ages, first manifested itself in the national literathis epoch. The literature of the French rabbins ture. Its character, contents, expression, and even Was more national in its character, and kept its phraseology, were changed. Poetry, language, more strictly within the limits of the Halacha philology, criticism, education, history, and literaand Haggada. In Provence, which combined the ture have been earnestly cultivated. The sacred literary characteristics of France and Spain, there books have been translated by them into the lanwere celebrated Jewish academies at Lunel, Nar- guages of modern Europe, and foreign works into bonne, and Nimes, and we find Talmudists, such Hebrew; and many of this once proscribed and. as Berahja Halevi, Abraham-ben-David, &c. The detested race have taken an important part in the fame of the Talmudists of Germany, especially those public and scientific life of Europe. Among the of Mayence and Ratisbon, was very great. Among many illustrious names of this last period we can the most illustrious Jewish writers of this period, select only a few, like Ezechiel Landau, Elia Wilna, belonging to that country, are Simeon, the compiler J. Berlin, Mendelssohn, Maimon, Bendavid, Mendez, of Yalkut, Joseph Kara, Petachja, &c. Only a few names belong to Greece and Asia; still the Karaite J. had a very able writer in Juda Hadassi (1148). 254 Beer, Euchel, Bensev, S. Dubno, Creizenach, Zunz, 721 JEWS JEYPOOR. chiefly cultivators of literature, with reference to their own creed and nationality. To enumerate names of those who were and are illustrious in general literature, in law, philosophy, medicine, philology, mathematics, belles lettres, &c., we cannot even attempt, since there is not one country in Europe which does not count J. among the foremost and most brilliant representatives of its intellectual progress. Of Germany-considered to be in the vanguard of European learning-Bunsen says that the greater part of the professors at its universities and academies are Jews or of Jewish origin (Neander, Gans, Benary, Weil, Benfey, Stahl, Dernberg, Valentin, Lazarus, Herz, &c., &c.) -certainly a most startling fact. Another extraordinary and well-authenticated fact is, that the European press, no less than European finance, which means the freest development of all the resources of soil and science for the gigantic enterprises of our day, are to a great extent in their power; while, on the other hand, names like Heinrich Heine, B. Börne, R. v. Ense, Berthold Auerbach, Henrik Herz, Jules Janin; Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Halévy, Meyerbeer, Moscheles, Joachim, Ernst, Rubinstein, Wieniawski, Grisi, Braham, Giuglini, Czillag, Costa; Rachel, Davison, Rott, Dessoir; Bendemann, &c.; besides hosts of others less familiar to English ears, who shine in all branches of art: music, sculpture, painting, the drama, &c., shew plainly how unjust is the reproach of their being an 'abstract' people, without sense for the bright side of life and the arts that embellish it. Briefly-they are, by the unanimous verdict of the historians and philosophers of our times, reckoned among the chief promoters of the development of humanity and civilisation. What has been their reward we have seen. Terrible has been the punishment for sins and shortcomings, real or imaginary, over which both Christians and Mohammedans have thought good, at different periods, to constitute themselves judges; and the most hideous spot in the history of the last 2000 years is the systematical but futile endeavour to sweep the chosen race' from off the face of the earth. If there is a gradation in sufferings, Israel has reached the highest acme; if the long duration of sufferings, and the patience with which they are borne, ennobles, the Jews defy the high-born of all countries; if a literature is called rich which contains a few classical dramas, what place deserves a tragedy lasting a millennium and a half, composed and enacted by the heroes themselves?' With these grand words of Zunz (Synagogale Poesie) we conclude our brief sketch: proudly pointing to the final triumph of humanity which belongs to our own day and generation. JEWS, in point of law, are now, if natural-born subjects, on nearly the same footing as English subjects, the following peculiarities only being noticeable. By the 8 and 9 Vict. c. 52, they were allowed to hold offices in municipal corporations, on condition of signing a declaration (in place of the usual oaths) not to exercise their influence so as to injure or weaken the Protestant Church. By the statute 9 and 10 Vict. c. 59, they were placed, as regards their schools and places of worship, of education and charities, on the same footing as Protestant dissenters. Before 1845, doubts had prevailed whether the marriages previously celebrated in England among the J., according to their own usages, were valid, and the statute 10 and 11 Vict. c. 59 put an end to such doubts, by declaring all such marriages valid, provided both the parties married had been persons professing the Jewish religion. But now, as then, though it is competent for J., like other dissenters, to superadd any religious ceremony they please to their marriages, there must in all cases be notice given to the registrar of the district of such marriage being about to take place, the only exemption being that the marriage may be celebrated in the synagogue, and not, as in the ordinary case, in the superintendent registrar's office, or a registered building. A licence may also be procured from the superintendent registrar, and the secretaries of the respective synagogues are recognised as the persons to keep the register books of the Jewish marriages. In Scotland, there is no peculiar legislation affecting Jewish marriages. Lastly, by the statute 21 and 22 Vict. c. 48, s. 5, which substituted one oath for the oaths of allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration, an extension of the 8 and 9 Vict. c. 52 was made, to suit the case of the J. in all cases where the declaration set forth by 9 Geo. IV. c. 17 requires to be taken. The result is, that not merely as regards municipal offices, but all other offices where the same declaration is required, a Jewish subject is entitled to be admitted on making the declaration substituted by 8 and 9 Vict. c. 52. Moreover, the complete emancipation of the J. may be said to have been attained by the statute 21 and 22 Vict. c. 49, which enables either House of Parliament, when a Jew would be entitled, but for the oath of allegiance, to sit and vote in the House, to modify that oath by omitting the words, and I make this declaration upon the true faith of a Christian.' When these words are omitted, a Jew has no longer any conscientious objection to take the oath, and so is practically admitted, like other subjects, to become a member of either House of Parliament. It is, however, still in the discretion of either House to refuse to make the resolution to omit those words, so that J. have not an absolute right to admission, though practically it is not likely that the admission will in future be refused, at least by the House of Commons. The same act specially excludes J. from holding or exercising the office of guardians and justices of the United Kingdom, or of Regent of the United Kingdom, or of Lord High Chancellor, Lord Keeper or Lord Commissioner of the Great Seal of Great Britain or Ireland, or the office of Lord Lieutenant or deputy, or other chief governor or governors of Ireland, or Her Majesty's High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Whenever a Jew holds any office in the gift of Her Majesty, to which office shall belong any right of presentation to any ecclesiastical benefice, such right of presentation shall devolve upon the Archbishop of Canterbury for the time being. JEWS-HARP (Fr. jeu, a toy?), a very simple musical instrument, made of metal. When played on, it is held between the teeth, and the sound is produced by the inhaling and ejecting of the air from the lungs, while at the same time an elastic tongue or spring, which is fixed in the middle of the frame, is set into vibration by being twitche by the finger. It is a pretty old invention, and is mentioned by Prätorius in his Organographia, in 1619, under the name of Crembalum. The best Jews-harps are made in Riva, a town in the Italian Tyrol. The first performer of any celebrity on the Jews-harp was a Prussian soldier, under Frederick the Great, called Koch. In modern times, Kunert, Amstein, and others, were famous for using a variety of harps, all differently tuned; and their performances were so wonderful, that, like other artists, they travelled over Europe, and appeared at public concerts with great success. JEWS' MALLOW. See CORCHORUS. JEWS' THORN. See JUJUBE and PALIURUS JEYPOO'R, capital of the protected state of the same name, and perhaps the handsomest and most JHANSI-JOAN. regularly built of the native towns of India, stands about 850 miles to the north-west of Calcutta, in lat. 26° 56′ N., and long. 75° 55' E. The place is a rectangle of two miles by one, being subdivided by parallel streets in both directions into small rectangular blocks, the palace and gardens occupying the centre. Besides numerous temples and mosques, there are an arsenal and an observatory. The state of Jeypoor is situated in Rajpootana, contains 15,251 square miles, and nearly 2,000,000 inhabitants. JHA'NSI, a fortified town in Bundelcund, stands in lat. 25° 28' N., and long. 78° 38′ E. It carries on a considerable trade, being on the main route between the Deccan and the Doab. During the revolt of 1857, the native garrison murdered all the Europeans, men, women, and children, not leaving one to tell the tale. In the following April, the place was recovered, with enormous loss on the part of the insurgents, by a detachment of the Bombay army under Sir Hugh Rose.-The state of Jhansi has an area of about 2500 square miles, and a pop. of 200,000. JHE'LUM, the ancient Hydaspes, one of the rivers of the Punjab. It rises in Cashmere, which forms its upper basin, and is navigable within that country for about 70 miles. On emerging from the Himalaya through the Baramula Pass, it again becomes practicable for small craft. After a course of 490 miles, it joins the Chenab, in lat. 31° 10' N., long. 72° 9' E., and forms with it what is sometimes called the Trimah or Trimab. The banks of this river were the scene of the battle between Alexander the Great and Porus. The river waters the towns of Islamabad, Shahabad, Srinagur, Jelalpur, and Pind Dadun Khan. JIB, a triangular sail borne in front of the foremast in all vessels. It has the bowsprit for a base in schooners and vessels of a smaller class, and the jib-boom in larger vessels, and exerts an important Jib: 1, fore-topmast staysail, set on fore-topmast stay: 2, jib; 3, flying jib; 4, bowsprit; 3, jib-boom; 6, flying jib-boom; 7, martingale, or dolphin-striker; 8, fore-course. effect, when the wind is a-beam, in throwing the ship's head to leeward. The flying jib has the flying jib-boom for a base. When a fore-course is not used, an additional jib-shaped sail, called the foresail, is spread on the fore-stay. JIB-BOOM, an extension of the bowsprit of a ship towards the front, running out beyond it, by a cap and irons, as does the topmast above the lowermast. It gives greater spread for jib-sails, and a more extended base for the top-gallant-mast-stay. In large vessels, a flying jib-boom is run out in a similar manner beyond the jib-boom. JIBING. See GYBING. JI'DDAH, or JEDDAH, a trading town of the Hedjaz, Arabia, is situated on an eminence rising from the eastern shore of the Red Sea, about 60 miles west of Mecca, of which city it is the port. J. is an unhealthy town; it suffers greatly from want of water, and is surrounded by a desert. It has, however, long been the great commercial centre of Arabia. It imports corn, rice, butter, and other natural productions from Egypt and Abyssinia, manufactures from India, and slaves from the Malay Archipelago. Coffee is largely exported. It is inhabited by a fanatical population, and its religious enthusiasm is never allowed to wane, owing to the numbers of pilgrims to Mecca who are constantly pouring through it. On the 15th June 1858, the inhabitants rose against the Christians resident among them, and massacred a considerable number of them. In August of the same year, the town was bombarded by the British, and satisfaction rendered. The population fluctuates between 10,000 and 20,000 and upwards. JIG. See GIGG. JIGGER. See CHIGOE. of a strong rope with a block at one end, and a JIGGER, on board ship, an apparatus consisting sheave at the other, used in maintaining the tension of-or, technically, in holding on' to-the cable as it is thrown off from the capstan or windlass, round which it only takes two or three turns. JIHU'N. See Oxus. JI'NA. See JAINAS. JITOMI'R, chief town of the government of Volhynia, in European Russia, is situated on the river Teterev, an affluent of the Dnieper, in lat. 50° 15' N., long. 28° 40′ E.; distance from St Petersburg, 802 miles; pop. in 1858, 33,717. Its foundation is traced back as far as the 10th c., and it was at one time an important stronghold against the invasions of the Cossacks. In 1642, it was nearly destroyed by the Cossack chief Khmelnitzky, In 1793, it was annexed to the Russian empire, as chief town of the government of Volhynia. The town carries on a trade in leather, wax, honey, and tallow, has four annual fairs, carries on iron and glass works, and extensive cloth manufactures. JOAN, POPE, the name of a supposed female occupant of the papal chair in the 9th century. The popular story represents this singular personage as of English parentage, but educated at Cologne, Rome, and ultimately Athens, in all which places in the assumed character of a man, and under the name of Joannes Anglicus, John of England,' she is alleged to have attained great distinction as a scholar. The narrative adds, that having come in the end to Rome, she had ability and adroitness enough to carry the deception so far as to obtain holy orders, and to rise through various gradations to the papal sovereignty itself; but that being nevertheless of immoral life, the fraud was at length discovered, to the infinite scandal of the church, by her becoming pregnant, and being seized with the pains of childbirth on occasion of a public procession. The story had obtained currency, certainly, in the latter part of the 13th century. It was inserted, though discredited, by Platina in his Lives of the Popes, but the statement does not appear to have been much discussed until the 16th c., when the commentator of Platina, Panvinius, inserted a note in refutation of it. Later Roman Catholic historians of course have published replies to the objections against the papal succession which their adversaries drew from the story of the female pope; but it is curious that the most complete and 723 |