GRABS-GRACCHUS. Thus chalice was believed to have been first brought conciliatory spirit were of great service to the state. from heaven by angels, and was the one from which He married Cornelia, the youngest daughter of P. Christ drank at the Last Supper. It was preserved Scipio Africanus, by whom he had twelve children. by Joseph of Arimathea, and in it were caught Nine of these died in youth; a daughter, Cornelia, the last drops of the blood of Christ as he was married Scipio Africanus the younger. The history taken from the cross. This holy chalice, thus of his two sons follows: trebly sanctified, was guarded by angels, and then by the Templises, a society of knights, chosen for their chastity and devotion, who watched over it in a temple-like castle on the inaccessible mountain Montsalvage. The legend, as it grew, appears to have combined Arabian, Jewish, and Christian elements, and it became the favourite subject of the poets and romancers of the middle ages. The eight centuries of warfare between the Christians and Moors in Spain, and the foundation of the order of Knight Templars, aided in its development. The stories and poems of Arthur and the Round Table were connected with this legend. About 1170, Chrétien of Troyes, and after him other troubadours, sang of the search for the holy graal by the Knights of the Round Table, in which they met with many extraordinary adventures. Some have supposed that the story of the connection of the miraculous chalice with the Last Supper and the blood of Christ arose from a wrong division of the words san gréal, holy vessel, which were written sang réal, royal blood, blood of the Lord; but although the coincidence is curious, there is no good reason to suppose that a pun could have been the foundation of a superstition which spread over Europe. The legend of the graal was introduced into German poetry in the 13th c. by Wolfram von Eschenbach, who took Guiot's tales of Parcival and Titurel as the foundation of his poem, but filled it with deep allegorical meanings. It is more elaborately treated by the author of Titurel the Younger; and much curious information may be found in a work, On the Description of the Temple of the Holy Graal, by Boisserée ( Ueber die Beschreibung des Tempels des Heiligen Graal,' Munich, 1834). 1. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS was born about 168 B. C., and was educated with great care by his excellent mother (his father having died while he was yet very young). He first saw military service under his brother-in-law, Scipio Africanus the younger, whom he accompanied to Africa. He was present at the capture of Carthage, and is said to have been the first of the Romans to scale the walls. In 137 B. C., he acted as quæstor to the army of the consul Mancinus in Spain, where the remembrance of his father's good faith and clemency was so fresh after forty years' interval, that the Numantines would treat with no other Roman but the son of their former benefactor. He was thus enabled to save from utter destruction an army of 20,000 Romans, who had been defeated, and were at the mercy of the Numantines. But the peace was considered by the aristocratic party at Rome as disgraceful to the national honour, and was repudiated, Mancinus being stripped naked, and sent back to the Numantines, that the treaty might thus be rendered void. Disgust and disappointment at this result are said by some, though without good reason, to have determined G. to espouse the cause of the people against the nobles; but a much more feasible ground for his conduct is to be found in the oppressed state of the commons at the time. Being elected tribune, he endeavoured to reimpose the Agrarian Law of Licinius Stolo, and after violent opposition on the part of the aristocratic party, who had bribed his colleague M. Octavius Cæcina, he succeeded in passing a bill to that effect. (For a detailed account of the measure, see AGRARIAN LAW.) Tiberius G., his brother Caius, and his fatherenforce its provisions. in-law Ap. Claudius, were appointed triumvirs to Pergamus, died, and bequeathed all his wealth to Meantime, Attalus, king of the Roman people. G. therefore proposed that this should be divided among the poor, to enable them GRA'CCHUS is the name of a Roman family, to procure agricultural implements, and to stock of the gens Sempronia, which contributed several their newly acquired farms. It is said that he also famous citizens to the state. First we have Tiberius intended to extend the franchise, and to receive Sempronius, who was consul in 238 B. C., and Italian allies as Roman citizens. He also diminished conducted some warlike operations in Corsica and the time which citizens were required to serve in Sardinia. Another Tib. Sempronius distinguished the army. But fortune turned against the good himself in the second Punic war, and for his success tribune. He was accused of having violated the in opposing Hannibal, was honoured with the sacred character of the tribuneship by the depoconsulship in 215 B. C., and again in 213 B. C. In sition of Cæcina, and the fickle people in large those days of despondency, he did much to revive numbers deserted their champion and benefactor. the spirit of the senate and people; with the allies, At the next election for the tribuneship, his and 8000 volones, or volunteer slaves (who after- enemies used all their efforts to oust him; and a wards gained their liberty as a reward for their violent scuffle having arisen between the opposing bravery), he withstood the Carthaginians in South factions, G. was slain, along with upwards of 300 Italy, defeated Hanno, and checkmated Hannibal others. His surviving friends were imprisoned, himself; but after many victories, he at length lost exiled, or put to death. his life, either in battle with Mago, or, according to others, by treachery. Hannibal honoured him with a splendid funeral. Passing by some Gracchi of minor note, as the augur of 203 B. C., the tribune of 189 B. C., and others, we come to Tiberius Sempronius, the father of those two reformers and friends of the people whose fame has overshadowed all the others. He was born about 210 B. C., and for many years occupied a foremost position in the state. He was successively tribune, ædile, prætor, consul (twice), and censor, and distinguished himself in several wars. He introduced some important constitutional changes, and was often employed on foreign embassies, in which his judgment and GRABS, vessels of from 150 to 300 tons, employed on the Malabar coast. They are broad armed ships, with two or three masts, and unsuited for very heavy weather. 2. CAIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, who was nine years younger than his brother, was possessed of much greater natural powers, and of more comprehensive views. His brother's death, which occurred while he was serving in Spain under Scipio Africanus, deterred him for some years from entering into public life; and the nobles seeing his great abilities, and fearing his influence with the people, endeavoured to keep him as long as possible on foreign service in Sardinia and elsewhere. But at length he unexpectedly returned to Rome, being urged by his brother's shade, as was said, to enter on his great mission. Goaded by the persecution and groundless accusations of his enemies, he stood GRACE-GRADUAL for the tribuneship, and was elected in 123 B. C. After bringing forward some measures to take vengeance on his brother's murderers, he set himself to carry out the agrarian law, which, though not repealed, had by the machinations of the nobles been kept in abeyance. The two great aims of his legislation-viz., to improve the condition of the poor, and to curtail the power of the senate and nobles-were now prosecuted with the utmost vigour, and with unflinching steadiness of purpose. To develop the resources of Italy, and at the same time to employ the poor, he made new roads throughout all parts of the country, repaired old ones, and erected milestones. By his zeal, and by his unwearied industry in personally carrying out his own measures, even to superintending the execution of the public works, and by his affability and kindly good nature, he gained the esteem and approbation of all men with whom he came in contact. With the equites and the poorer classes, he was in special favour. But he at length fell, as his brother had done, by the intrigues of the nobles. One of his colleagues, M. Livius Drusus, was bribed by the opposite faction, and soon succeeded in undermining the influence of Caius by far surpassing him in the liberality of his public measures, and by his benefits to the commons. G. having stood for the tribuneship a third time, was rejected. Ultimately, by a series of moves, the history of which is too long for our space, violence was employed against Caius and his party-a fearful struggle took place in the streets of Rome, in which 3000 men are said to have perished. Many others were imprisoned, and afterwards executed. Caius held aloof from the fight, but was at length compelled to seek safety in flight. He escaped to the grove of the Furies with a single slave, who first slew his master, and then himself. The people saw, when too late, the folly of which they had been guilty in abandoning their best friend in the hour of need, and endeavoured to atone for their crime by erecting statues to the brothers G., by declaring sacred the spots where their blood had been shed, and by offering sacrifices to them as to deities. Caius left a son, whose after-fate is unknown. GRACE is an expression frequently used in Scripture and in theological discussion. Its distinctive meaning is the idea of free and unmerited favour. According to Aristotle, this is the proper meaning of charis (Gr. grace), even when applied to man. It is a benefit springing out of the liberality and freeheartedness of the giver, and bestowed without any hope or expectation of reward. Applied to God in the New Testament and in theology, it denotes the free outcoming of his love to man; and when man, on the other hand, is said to be in a state of grace, it implies that he is in the enjoyment of this divine love and favour. St Paul draws a sharp contrast (Rom. xi.) between charis and erga (Gr. works), as mutually excluding one another. And if by grace, then is it no more of works: otherwise grace is no more grace. But if it be of works, then is it no more grace: otherwise work is no more work.' Theologians have distinguished grace into common or general, and special or particular. Common grace 's supposed to denote the love which God has to all His creatures, and the light of nature and of conscience which they all enjoy. Special grace is the love which God has for His elect people, and by which He saves them from their sins. This special or saving grace is sometimes also divided in various ways, and spoken of as electing, justifying, sanctifying grace; also in respect of man, as imputed or inherent grace-the grace, that is to say, of Christ's righteousness imputed or reckoned to the account of those that believe on Him, and the grace of holy and pious dispositions wrought in the heart by the spirit of God. Grace is also spoken of as efficacious and irresistible, and the relation in which the elect or believing people stand to God is represented as a covenant of grace, in contrast with the primitive relation which Adam bore to his Maker before the fall, which is called a covenant of works. All these theological distinctions have arisen in the course of extended argument and discussion on divine truth. They are not to be found-at least in their more technical sense-in the New Testament. The charis of St Paul is not a logical distinction, but a spiritual fact. It is the loving aspect of God towards the sinner-towards all sinners, whereby all who confess their sins have free access into His favour, and receive the adoption of sons.' The technical distinctions of theology, however, are not without their value when rightly apprehended and interpreted. They mark the course of past controversy-they give precision to theological thought and when not allowed to deface the simpler proportions of divine truth, they may teach needful and important lessons. GRACE, DAYS OF. See BILL. Hesiod and most GRACES, the goddesses of grace, favour, and gentleness, the sources of all grace and beauty, appear in Homer in indefinite numbers as the attendants of Cytherea (Venus), whom it is their office to bathe and anoint. other poets mention three G.-Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome. Their worship is said to have been first introduced into Greece at Orchomenos, in Boeotia, by Eteocles. The Lacedemonians and Athenians originally recognised only two Graces, called, by the former, Phænna and Kleta; by the latter, Hegemone and Auxo. In the early ages, the G. were represented in elegant drapery; at a later period, slightly draped, or entirely nude. They appear holding each other by the hand, or locked in each other's embrace. GRACIO'SA, one of the Azores Islands (q. v.), and the seventh of that group in population and importance. GRA'DIENT. A tortoise walking is said, in Heraldry, to be gradient. GRADIENT, a term used chiefly in connection with railways, to signify a departure of the line from a perfect level. GRA'DUAL, in the Liturgy of the Roman and other Western churches, means that portion of the mass which intervenes between the epistle and gospel, and consists of a few verses of the Holy Scriptures, generally taken from the Psalms. It was originally called the Responsum,' or 'Cantus Responsorius;' but, probably for the sake of distinguishing it from other portions of the service called by the same name, its present appellation has been substituted. The name 'gradual' is derived from the place at which this response was chanted, and which was either the ambo, or chanting pulpit, which is approached by steps' (gradus) or the steps' themselves, whether of the ambo or of the altar. Originally, as we find from St Augustine, the gradual response consisted of an entire psalm, and in the mass of the first Sunday of Lent the entire of the 91st (90th in the Vulgate) psalm is chanted. In the Ambrosian Liturgy, the gradual is partly from the Old and partly from the New Testament. The gradual, in the Roman liturgy, is always followed by the alleluia,' except in penitential time, when a slow and mournful chant,, called the 'Tract,' is substituted. GRADUAL PSALMS-GRADUATION. GRADUAL PSALMS, or 'PSALMS OF THE STEPS,' or 'SONGS OF DEGREES,' a name given both by the Hebrews and in the Christian servicebooks to the fifteen psalms, 120–134 (119––133 in the Vulgate). The origin of this name is uncertain. The rabbins trace it to a fabulous incident connected with the building of the second temple; others explain it as an allusion to the fifteen steps by which (Ezekiel xl. 22-26) the temple was reached; others, again, regard these psalms as containing a prophetic allusion to the return from captivity, which, in the language of the Jews, was a going up,' the 134th psalm being the full outburst of exultation at the accomplishment of that great object of hope and longing. These psalms, in the Romish Church, form part of the office of each Wednesday during the Lent. GRADUALE, the name given to the music of the above described portion of the Roman Liturgy. It is performed during mass after the epistle is read. It is said to have been used from the earliest times to allow the officiating priest time, during its performance, to take his place on the steps of the reading-desk, or on the steps of the gospel side of the altar. The music is according to the character of the words, and may be either an aria, duet, or chorus. The composition must not be long, as the priest has little ceremony to go through during its performance. The best specimens of the graduale are Haydn's Insance et Vance Curae; Salve Regina; or Mozart's Misericordias Domini; Sancta Maria; De Profundis, &c. GRADUATION, the art of dividing mathematical, astronomical, and other instruments. The simplest problem in graduation is the dividing of a straight line, such as an ordinary scale or rule. This is commonly done by copying from a standard scale, for which purpose a dividing square and a suitable knife for cutting the divisions are used. The dividing square is a hard steel straight-edge, with a shoulder at right angles like a carpenter's square. This is made to slide along the standard scale, and halt at each required division, when a corresponding one is cut upon the rule, &c., by using the steel straight-edge as a guide to the knife. The original graduation of a straight line into equal divisions, as in making a first standard scale, &c., is performed either on the principle of bisection or stepping. In bisecting, the points of a beam-compass (see COMPASS) are adjusted to nearly half the length of the line to be divided; one point is then placed at one end of the line, and a faint are struck towards the middle: this is repeated at the other end; the small distance between these arcs is then carefully bisected with the aid of a fine pointer and magnifier, which gives an accurate half of the line. The half thus obtained is again bisected in like manner, and these quarters bisected again, and so on until the required subdivision is attained. Stepping is performed with delicately pointed spring-dividers, which are set at once as nearly as possible to the opening of the small division required; then the points are made to step on, leaving at each step a very fine dot; and when it is found that the last dot either falls short of or overpasses the end of the line, the opening is adjusted accordingly, until perfect accuracy is obtained. Thus, if a line were divided into a thousand parts, and each division were th too long or too short, the error would amount to a whole division at the end of a thousand steps. The method of bisection is practically the most accurate, and has been adopted by Graham, Bird, Ramsden, Troughton, and other eminent artists in original graduation. Curved lines are divided on this It principle. The chord of an arc of 60 is equal to the radius; therefore, the opening of the compasses required for striking the circle gives this arc at once to start with. An arc 90°, or a quadrant, is obtained by bisecting 60°, and adding the half. By continual bisection of 60°, the finer graduations are produced. The amount of care, patience, skill, and delicacy of touch required in the original graduation of important astronomical instruments, is such, that not above one or two men in a generation have been found competent to the task, and these have become almost as famous as the astronomers who have successfully used the instruments. would be out of place here to point out in detail the minute precautions and methods of correction that are adopted in this most delicate manipulation; but, as an example, we may mention the fact, that Graham, when dividing the mural quadrant for the Greenwich Observatory, measured his larger chords from a scale made for the purpose; but before laying these down on the quadrant, he left the scale, beamcompasses, and quadrant to stand for a whole night, in order to acquire exactly the same temperature, and that neglect of this precaution would have involved a notable amount of error. of such extreme accuracy will be understood when The necessity we consider the application that is made of these divisions. When, for example, the mariner deterof the sun, the graduated arc of the limb of the mines his latitude by taking the meridian altitude sextant or quadrant he uses represents, practically, the curved surface of the globe, and the error is magnified just to the same extent as the radius of the earth exceeds that of the divided arc of the instrument. Supposing this are to be part of a circle of 60 inches' circumference, each degree will occupy th of an inch. An error of th of an inch in the division would thus mislead the mariner to an extent of more than four statute miles as regards his position on the waters. But such a ship's quadrant is but a coarse and rude instrument compared with astronomical instruments for measuring celestial angular distances by means of a divided arc; in these, an error of a thousandth part of an inch would be regarded as one of serious magnitude. The methods of original graduation above described are not practically adopted except for the largest and most important astronomical or geodesical instruments. Ordinary instruments are graduated by dividing plates or engines which copy and adapt a set of already existing divisions. The dividingplate which is used for common purposes, such as dividing compass rings, &c., is a divided circle wich a steel straight-edge, made movable on the axis or arbor of the plate in such a manner that its edge during every part of its revolution shall fall in the exact line from centre to circumference. The ring, protractor, or other instrument to be divided, is clamped upon the plate with its centre exactly coinciding with that of the plate, and the straight-edge is moved round, and made to halt at the required divisions on the circumference of the dividingplate, and by using the steel straight-edge as a guide, corresponding divisions are marked off upon the concentric arc of the instrument to be divided. The dividing-engine is a very complex machine, requiring the greatest accuracy and care in its construction; so much so, that the possession of a good one affords the means of obtaining a very good income, with a moderate amount of labour in using it. Such was the case with the instrument of Mr Parsons of London, who for many years divided a large proportion of the best theodolites, sextants, &c., that were made in this country Among the most celebrated dividing-engines may GRÆCIA-GRAFFITI GRAFFITI (Ital. graffito, a scratching), a class be mentioned those of Ramsden, Troughton, Simms, and Ross. A detailed account of the construc- of ancient inscriptions to which attention has tion of these would far exceed our limits. Their recently been called, and of which several collections principal parts consist of a large circle divided have been made, or are in progress. The graffito with extreme care by original graduation. This is a rude scribbling or scratching with a stylus, or wheel is racked on its edge with teeth as equal and other sharp instrument, on the plaster of a wall, accurate as the divisions; a very carefully con- a pillar, or a door-post. Such scribblings are pretty structed endless screw works in these teeth, and commonly found on the substructions of Roman is moved through any given number of revolutions, ruins, as in the Golden House of Nero, the palace of or any measured fraction of a revolution, by means the Cæsars and the Palatine, and in still greater of a treadle or other suitable power, thus making numbers in Pompeii and in the Roman catacombs. the requisite steps for each division; another part Their literary value, of course, is very slight; but of the machine cutting a fine line at the moment as illustrating the character and habits of a certain of the halt of each step. class of the ancient Romans, and what may be called the 'street-life' of the classic period, they are deserving of study. A small selection of Pompeiian graffiti was published in 1837 by Dr Wordsworth; but the most complete, or, at all events, the most popular collection, is that of Padre Garrucci, a Neapolitan Jesuit, which was published in Paris in Roman ruins, but they are commonly in Latin, and 1856. Greek graffiti occasionally are found upon in a few instances at Pompeii, in the ancient Oscan. A few specimens may not be uninteresting. These divisions are cut upon an arc of silver, gold, or platinum, which is soldered or inlaid upon the limb of the instrument, the precious metals being used, on account of the oxidation to which common metals are liable. GRÆCIA, MAGNA. See MAGNA GRÆCIA. Some of them are idle scribblings, such as we may suppose some loiterer to indite at the present day; thus, some lounger at the door of a wineshop at Pompeii amuses himself by scratching on the door-post the tavern-keeper's name-Taberna Appii ('Appius's Tavern'), fig. 1. In other cases, we TA À E ̃NA API Fig. 1. い GRAF, the German equivalent for Count (q. v.), Comte, Comes, and for our Earl (q. v.). The etymology of the word is disputed, but the most probable conjecture seems to be that it springs from the same root with the modern German raffen and the Anglo-Saxon reafan, to snatch or carry off hastily; and also with our words reve, greve, and the last syllable of sheriff. If this view be correct, the graf, in all probability, was originally a fiscal officer, whose duty it was to collect the revenue of a district. The title first appears in the lex salica (compiled in the 5th c.), under the Latinised form of Grafio; at a later period, the office is often designated by the Latin equivalent of Comes. Charlemagne divided his whole kingdom into grafel districts (Grafengaue) or counties, each of which was presided over by a graf. The people were in the habit of appointing a representative called the Cent-graf to attend to their interests with the graf, and probably, if necessary, to appeal from his decisions to the central government. Then there was the Stall-graf, or stable-graf; the Comes Stabuli, or constable of later times; the Pfalz-graf (Comes Palatii), who presided in the domestic court of the monarch, which as such was the highest court in the realm; the Send-graf, who rude sketches also are found upon the walls, some was sent as an extraordinary deputy of the king of them evidently caricatures, others seriously to control the ordinary gau-grafen; and lastly, the meant, and grotesque from the extreme rudeness. Mark-graf, or marquis, on whom the important A great many of the subjects of those sketches are duty of defending the border-lands devolved. When gladiatorial. Here is a specimen (fig. 3) : feudal offices became hereditary, and the power of the princes of the empire, secular and ecclesiastical, developed itself, the graf gradually ceased to be an officer possessed of real power, and became merely a titled noble. In Germany, in modern times, there are two classes of grafs those who are representatives of the old grafel families, who held Sovereign jurisdiction immediately under the crown (landeshoheit), and who still belong to the higher nobility, their chief taking the title Erlaucht (Illustrious); and those who form the highest class of the lower nobility. The former is a very small, the latter, an extremely numerous class of persons. GRA FENBERG, a little village in Austrian Silesia, is an extension of the town of Freiwaldau towards the north, and is celebrated as the spot where the water-cure (see HYDROPATHY) was introduced about the year 1828 by Priestnitz. The village is situated at an elevation of 1200 feet above the level of the Baltic Sea; the climate is inclement, and the vegetation scanty. It extends from the valley, half way up the Gräfenberge. The lodgings for visitors are partly in the buildings connected with the baths, partly scattered on the declivity of the hill, or in Freiwaldau. meet with some scrap of rude pleasantry or scandal, such as not unfrequently defaces the walls of our own towns or villages; thus, Auge amat Arabienum (Auge is in love with Arabienus '), fig. 2. Many AVEMA NUA VÁR 10 IEMA M Fig. 2. Fig. 3. By far the largest proportion of the graffiti are from Pompeii, but many have also been discovered GRAFFITI-GRAFTING. at Rome, and some of them are of a most interesting character. One discovered by Father Garrucci in 1856, in a subterranean chamber of the palace of the Cæsars, possesses a strange and truly awful interest, as a memorial of the rude early conflicts of paganism with the rising Christian creed. It is no other than a pagan caricature of the Christian worship of our Lord on the cross, and contains a Greek inscription descriptive of one Alexamenus as engaged in worshipping God. The chamber in which it was found appears to have been a waiting-room for slaves and others of inferior grade. The graffiti of the catacombs are almost all sepulchral, and are full of interest as illustrating early Christian life and doctrine.-See for the whole subject the Edinburgh Review, vol. cx. pp. 411 -437. GRAFTING, the uniting of a young shoot (scion) of one kind of plant to a stem (stock) of another kind, so that the scion may receive nourishment from the stock. Grafting has been practised from ancient times, as may be seen from passages in the New Testament, and in Virgil and other Latin classics; although it cannot be certainly traced to a more remote antiquity; and its introduction among the Chinese is ascribed to Roman Catholic missionaries. It is a most important part of the art of gardening, and is practised for various purposes, but chiefly for the perpetuation and propagation of the finest varieties of fruit-trees, which could not be accomplished by seed, and is accomplished by grafting more rapidly and easily than by layers or cuttings. Besides this, however, grafting is of great use in hastening and increasing the fruitfulness of fruittrees; the circulation of the sap being impeded at the junction of the stock and scion-as by a deep wound, removal of bark or the like-more particularly when there is a considerable difference between the stock and scion; and repeated grafting (technically, working) is often resorted to by gardeners to obtain flowers and fruit much sooner than would naturally be the case. Grafting is also employed to turn to account the vigour of a root and stem of which the branches are exhausted or otherwise unproductive, and large crops of fruit may often be thus obtained in a garden, much sooner than by any other means. In grafting, it is particularly to be attended to that the Alburnum (q. v.) of the scion is brought into contact with that of the stock. The hard wood of the one never unites with that of the other, remaining separate and marking the place of the operation even in the oldest trees. For scions or grafts, pieces of about six to eight inches long are generally taken from the shoots of the previous summer, with several buds, but portions of shoots of two years old are sometimes successfully employed. The time for grafting is in spring, as soon as the sap begins to appear. The scion should, if possible, be taken from a healthy and fruitful tree, but scions from the extremities of lateral branches are more likely to become speedily fruitful than those from the uppermost branches, where growth is most vigorous. The scion should be kept for a few days before grafting, so that the stock may rather exceed it, not only in vigour, but in the progress of its spring growth; and for this purpose may be placed in the ground, in a rather dry soil, sheltered from the direct rays of the sun. Scions may be kept for some time, and easily carried to a distance, by sticking their lower end into a potato. The end should always be freshly cut off when the scion is to be used. There are various modes of grafting. Cleft-grafting (fig. 1) is very commonly practised when the stock is very considerably thicker than the scion. The stock being cut over, is cleft down, and the graft, cut into the shape of a wedge at its lower end by a sharp thin knife, is inserted into the cleft. This mode of grafting is particularly applicable to branches of large Fig. 1.-Cleft-grafting. trees, when the introduction of a new variety of fruit, or increased fruitfulness, is sought.-Crongrafting is used for still thicker stocks, which are cut across, and then cleft down by two clefts crossing one another at right angles, two scions being inserted close to the bark in each cleft; or no cleft at all is made, and any desired number of scions obliquely cut away on one side are simply inserted between the bark and wood of the stock, the operation in this case being deferred till the bark readily parts from the wood. In this kind of grafting, a longi tudinal slit in the bark of the stock, opposite to each graft, is advantageous. TongueFig. 2. grafting (fig. 2) is the a, tongue grafting; b, cleft graftmode most commonly ing; c, tongue-grafting (sidepractised for young trees in nurseries. For this, it is necessary that the stock and the scion should be of not very different thickness. A slit or a very narrow angular incision is made in the centre of the stock downwards, and a similar one in the scion upwards, both having been first cut obliquely, at corresponding angles, and the tongue thus made in the scion being inserted into the incision in the stock, they are fastened very closely and thoroughly together.-In Saddlegrafting, the end of the stock is cut into the form of a wedge, and the scion is affixed to it, the base of the scion having been cut or slit up for the purpose.Shoulder-grafting (fig. 3), used chiefly for ornamental trees, is performed by cutting grafting) as practised in wall trees to fill up vacancies, with out cutting over the head of the stock. obliquely, and then Fig. 3.-Shoulder-grafting. cutting across a small part at top of the stock, so as to form a shoulder, the scion being cut to fit it.-Peg-grafting, not now |