them. They are produced by no special organ analogous to the bulbs from which the hairs of animals grow, but are composed of cellular tissue, arise from the epidermis, and are covered with extensions of the cuticle. Some hairs consist of a single elongated cell; some of several cells placed end to end The gradations are quite indefinite between the most elongated hairs and the mere warts or rugosities which often appear on the surface of plants. In like manner, hairs pass into bristles (sete) and prickles (aculei), which are merely stronger and harder hairs; but spines or thorns are totally different, arising from the wood of the stem or branch. Hairs are very often connected with glands, which are cells or clusters of cells, producing secretions; hairs often arise from glands, and then generally serve as ducts through which the secretion may pass; but hairs also often bear glands at their apex. Stinging hairs, as in Nettles, Loasas, and some Malpighias (see these heads), are ducts, with venom-secreting glands at their base. HAJDUK (in ancient Latin documents, Hajdones) is the name for the population of a free district called Hajdu Kerület, in the eastern part of Hungary. The H. are direct descendants of those warriors, who, during the long and bloody contest between the House of Hapsburg and the Protestant insurgents of Hungary, formed the nucleus of Prince Stephen Bocskay's valiant armies. The H. enjoyed privileges of nobility, and immunities from taxation ever since 1605, in which year the whole tract of land they are in possession of to the present day was given them by the abovenamed munificent prince. Notwithstanding repeated attempts made by the Austrian government against their privileges, the H. retained the peculiar organissue of the struggle in 1848-1849, when they were reduced to the same level with the so-called hereditary provinces of the empire. At the dawn of the Reformation, the H. were among the first to adopt Calvin's doctrines (designated during a long period the Hungarian Faith,' in opposition to Luther, whose followers were chiefly among the Slaves of Upper Hungary). The H. are almost exclusively addicted to agriculture, and with the simplicity of manners unite all the qualities which distinguished their ancestors. Their total number amounts to 70,000, forming six towns.' The political chief of the district bears the title of Captain.

isation of their district, until after the disastrous

HAJILIJ, or BITO-TREE Balanites Egyptiaca), a tree of the natural order Amyrilacea, a native of Egypt and of Central Africa, cultivated for its fruit, a drupe, which is edible, and from the seeds of which a fixed oil is expressed, called Zachun. So much is this tree valued in Central Africa, that there is a common proverb to the effect that a milch cow and a bito-tree are the same. (Barth's Travels.) HAJJ (HAJI, HAGGE), (Heb. Hag, one of the three festivals appointed to the Jews for the purpose of pilgrimage to Jerusalem), Arab. pilgrimare, emphatically, pilgrimage to the Kaaba (q. v.) or temple of Mecca, which every Mohammedan, male or female, whose means and health permit, is bound to perform, once at least in his life, otherwise, he or she might as well die a Jew or a Christian.' Mohammed, after many fruitless attempts to abolish altogether the old custom of pilgrimageprevalent among most peoples in ancient, and some even in modern times, and perhaps arising from an innate, instinctive, travelling propensity, but is not unfrequently fraught with mischievous consequences -was compelled finally to confirm it, only taking care to annul its idolatrous rites, and to destroy the great number of ancient idols around Mecca. The

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12th month of the Mohammedan year, the Dsu Hajjeh, is the time fixed for the celebration of the solemnities, and the pilgrims have to set out for their journey one or two months before (in Shaw or Dhulkada), according to the respective distances they have to traverse. They first assemble at certain variously appointed places near Mecca, in the beginning of the holy month, and the commencement of the rites is made by the male pilgrims here first putting on the Ihrâm or sacred habit, which consists of two woollen wrappers-one around their middle, the other around their shoulders; their head remains bare, and their slippers must neither cover the heel nor the instep. It is enjoined that the pilgrims, while they wear this dress, should be particularly careful to bring their words and thoughts into harmony with the sanctity of the territory they now tread, a territory in which even the life of animals is to be held sacred from any attack. Arrived at Mecca, the pilgrims proceed at once to the temple, and begin the holy rites there by walking first quickly, then slowly, seven times round the Kaaba, starting from the corner where the lowed by the Sai, or running, likewise performed first black stone is fixed (Tawaf). This ceremony is folslowly, then quickly, between the two mounts Safe and Merwa, where, before Mohammed's time, the two idols Asaf and Nayelah had been worshipped. The next rite takes place on the ninth of the Dhulhajja, and consists in the Wukuf or standing in prayer on the mountain of Arafat, near Mecca, till sunset. The whole of the succeeding night is spent in holy devotions at Mogdalifa, between Arafat and Mina. The next morning, by daybreak, the pilgrims visit the Masher-al-Haram, the sacred in prayer that his face began to shine), and then monument (a place where the Prophet stood so long proceed to the valley of Mirra, where they throw seven (or seventy) stones at three pillars, for the purpose of putting the devil to flight. The pilgrimage is completed with the slaughtering of the The sacrifice over, they shave their heads and cut sacrifices on the same day and in the same place. their nails, burying the latter on the same spot. They then take leave of the Kaaba, and, taking with them some sacred souvenirs, such as dust from the Prophet's tomb, water from the well Zemzem, &c., they proceed to their homes. The return of most intense anxiety, and is celebrated with great the holy caravans is watched everywhere with the pomp and rejoicings. Henceforth, the pilgrim never omits to prefix the proud name of Hajji to his name. It is permitted that those who, through bodily infirmity, are incapacitated from performing the holy journey themselves, may send a substitute, who acts as their representative in almost every respect, but this substitute has no share whatever in the merits and rewards belonging to the Hajj

HAKE (Merlucius), a genus of fishes of the cod family (Gadidae), having a flattened head, an elongated body, two dorsal fins, of which the first

natives. By article three of the Treaty of Yedo (August 26, 1858), H. was, together with Kanagowa and Nagasaki, opened to foreign commerce from the 1st July 1859. See Treaty between Her Majesty and the Tycoon of Japan, August 26, 1858; Japan, the Amoor, and the Pacific, by H. A. Tilley (Lond. 1859); A Residence at Nagasaki and Hakodadi in 1859-1860, by C. P. Hodgson (Lond. 1861).

HALACHA (Rule) is the general term for the Jewish oral law, which runs parallel with the written law contained in the Bible, and is supposed to be like this, of divine origin. Its relation to the ordinances contained in the Pentateuch is that of an amplified code to the fundamental, religious, and civil maxims-such as the changes wrought by time in the inner and outer relations of a rapidly increasing people would of necessity produce. Handed down through a long chain of highest authorities (Sinaitic revelation, Moses, Joshua, Elders, Great Synagogue [Ezra], &c.), it could only be treated and further developed by the foremost men of each generation-such, in fact, as through their eminence in learning belonged to a kind of aristocracy of mind (Chachamim, Wise Men), towering above the multitude (Hediotim, idiots). Their decision on all ordinances involved in contradictory traditions was final, because it was believed to spring from a deeper apprehension of Scripture. Often, indeed, they had recourse, in order to give their opinion a greater weight, to certain special letters, words, and even signs in the Scripture, which, seemingly superfluous where they stood, were supposed to point to the injunction under discussion. Halacha embraces the whole field of juridico-political, religious, and practical life, down to its most minute and insignificant details. Originally, as we said, the Oral Law, by way of eminence, it began to be written down when the sufferings, to which the Jews were almost uninterruptedly subjected from the first exile downwards, had made many portions of it already very uncertain and fluctuating, and threatened finally to obliterate it altogether from memory. The first collection of laws was instituted by Hillel, Akiba, and Simon b. Gamaliel; but the final reduction of the general code, Mishna (q. v.), is due to Jehuda Hanassi, 220 A. D. Later additions to this code are formed by the Baraithas and Tosephtas. Of an earlier date with respect to their contents, but committed to writing in later times, are the three books (Midrashim): Sifra or Thorath Kohanim (an amplification of Leviticus), Sifri (of Numbers and Deuteronomy), and Mechiltha (of a portion of Exodus). The masters of the Mishnaic period, after the Soferim, are the Thanaim. These were followed by the Amoraim, who, by discussing and further amplifying the Mishna, became the authors of the Gemara (q. v.), a work extant in two redactions that of Palestine and of Babylon. The Halacha was further developed in subsequent centuries by the Saboraim, Geonim, and the authorities of each generation. See also MIDRASH, MISHNA, TALMUD.

HALA'S, a town of Hungary, in the district of Little Cumania, is situated on the lake of Halastó, about 80 miles south-south-east of Pesth. It has 12.750 inhabitants, who are employed chiefly in agriculture and the cultivation of the vine.

turned down as a hook, for use in tearing down works against which an attack is made. The honour of inventing the halberd is contested by the Swis and Danes, but probably each produced something resembling it. Its name appears to be derived

Halbert Heads of the reign of Henry VII.

The

from the Teutonic hild, battle, and bard, axe. halberd appears first in England about the time of Henry VIII., and maintained its position for upwards of two centuries. Now, it is rarely seen except on certain ceremonial occasions.

name,

of Prussian Saxony, in the government of MagdeHA'LBERSTADT, an ancient and quiet town burg, and 30 miles south-west of the city of that Holzemme, a tributary of the Saal. is situated amid fruitful plains on the It is well built; its streets are for the most part long, broad, and tolerably straight; and among its most notable buildings are the Church of Our Lady (1005–1284), in the Byzantine style, and the cathedral, an middle of the 13th c., and dedicated to St Stephen. elegantly proportioned Gothic edifice, begun in the H. has two good libraries, and numerous collections of paintings, coins, and antiquities, which, together with the Poetical Society (Dichterverein), formed by the poet Gleim, have had the effect of maintaining here a lively appreciation for the arts and sciences. The manufactures are woollen and cotton fabrics, leather, soap, gloves, tobacco, and cigars; brewing and oil-refining are also carried on extensively. Pop. 21,031.

to the seven days which precede and the seven HA'LCYON DAYS, a name given by the ancients which follow the shortest day, on account of a fable, that during this time, while the halcyon bird or king-fisher was breeding, there always prevailed calms at sea. From this the phrase 'halcyon days' has come to signify times of peace and tranquillity. HALCYO'NIDE. See KINGFISHER.

company of strolling-players visited that seat of learning, when the long pent-up passions of youth were suddenly let loose, and in this vagrant company

ge gave way to a good deal of dissipation, and at last was about to enter the army. But just at that time he became involved in a litigation about his patrimonial estate, and paid a visit to London to see Serjeant Glanvil, then a leading lawyer, on that subject. The serjeant turned young H.'s ambition into a new direction; and ultimately, in 1629, the latter entered the Society of Lincoln's Inn, and was in due course called to the bar. He had by that time renounced gay company, and became a great student, and soon acquired considerable practice. When the Long Parliament began to meet, he was of considerable reputation; and having cautiously refrained from committing himself to either of the great parties, both sought to enlist him in their service. But he declared for neutrality-conduct which Lord Campbell pronounces cowardly and selfish. When, however, the parliament triumphed, H. signed the Solemn League and Covenant, and sat in the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, tried to bring about a settlement between the king and parliament, and ultimately took his engagement to the Commonwealth, and was made a judge under Cromwell in 1653, having overcome his natural scruples about serving a usurper, on the plea of necessity. He acted as a puisne judge of the Common Pleas till Cromwell's death, but refused to have his commission renewed by Richard Cromwell, and then entered parliament. On the Restoration, he was made Chief Baron of the Court of Exchequer; and after eleven years, was transferred to the Chief-justiceship of the Court of Queen's Bench. He was reckoned the best judge of his time, being acute, learned, and sensible, and set his face against bribery, one of the vices of the age. John Bunyan was brought before him, and convicted of frequenting conventicles; and when Bunyan's wife afterwards moved for her husband's discharge, she was politely dismissed without redress. H. also sentenced some women, convicted of witchcraft, to be executed, avowing his full faith in the delusion of that age, that this was a grave and dangerous offence. During his career as a judge, H. led an austere and scholarly life, leaning to the side of the Puritans. He made a friend of Richard Baxter, and has left a great reputation for piety. He wrote some legal works, which are still of the highest authority, and he bequeathed several valuable legal MSS. to Lincoln's Inn, which are still treasured there. He resigned his office from ill health in 1676, and died ten months after, on Christmas-day of that year.

HALES, STEPHEN, an English natural philosopher, was born at Beckesbourn, in Kent, in 1677, and died at Teddington, in Middlesex, in 1761. He entered Bene't (now known as Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge, in 1696, was elected Fellow in 1702, and having taken holy orders, was presented about 1710 to the perpetual curacy of Teddington, where the remainder of his life seems to have been spent.

His first important publication was Vegetable Staticks, or an Account of some Statical Experiments on the Sap of Vegetables (1727), which rapidly acquired so high a reputation as to be translated into French, German, Dutch, and Italian, and which may be considered the starting-point of our true knowledge of vegetable physiology. A second part of this work, under the title Hamastaticks, and treating of the circulation of the blood, appeared in 1733. Besides other independent works, he contributed numerous memoirs to the Philosophical Transactions on Ventilation, on the Methods of keeping Water Fresh, on Electricity, on the Analysis of the Air, &c. His ventilating machines were introduced into the London prisons, and were found most efficacious in diminishing mortality among the prisoners. His

system was also adopted in France with similar good results.

His improvements in the mode of collecting gases did much to facilitate the subsequent labours of Black, Priestley, and Lavoisier.

He studied under

HALÉVY, JACQUES FRANÇOIS FROMENTAL, a French composer, was born at Paris, of Jewish Berton and Cherubini, and afterwards at Rome parentage, May 27, 1799. The first work of H.'s that brought him any considerable reputation was La Juive, produced at the Grand Opéra in 1835. The most important of his subsequent pieces (of a serious character) wereLa Reine de Chypre, Charles VI., Le Juif Errant, and La Magicienne. Those executed for the Opéra Comique are regarded as his most successful; the master-piece), L'Eclair, and Le Val d'Andorre. He principal are-Les Mousquetaires (probably his was a great favourite with his countrymen; but his style was so purely national, that, in spite of his great dramatic power, he did not enjoy a great celebrity out of France. H. died in March 1862.

HALF-BLOOD, i. e., persons related through one parent only. When two persons have the same father, but not the same mother, they are called brothers or brother and sister consanguinean; when they have the same mother only, they are called brothers, &c. uterine. In the succession to real or landed property in England, the half-blood relations by the father's side succeed after the full-blood relations; and next, but at a considerable interval, the half-blood relations by the mother's side. In Scotland, also, the half-blood consanguinean succeed to heritable estate in the same way, though not in identically the same order; but the half-blood uterine never succeed in any event. In England, as regards personal estate, the half-blood on both sides succeed indiscriminately, and share equally with the full-blood. But in Scotland, the half-blood only succeed to movable estate after all the full-blood and their descendants are exhausted, and then the half-blood by the father's side succeed in exclusion of the half-blood by the mother's side, who do not come in until the succession reaches a distant point, viz., where the nearest relations are uncles and aunts paternal, or their descendants, in which case only the half-blood uterine after the mother's death take half the property, and the paternal relatives the other half. See Paterson's Comp. of E. and S. Law.

HALF-PAY, an allowance given in the British army and navy to commissioned officers not actively employed in the rank to which the half-pay has reference. It corresponds to the French demi-solde, or pay of non-activité. It has long been a disputed point whether half-pay is given to officers as a retaining fee, to keep them at hand for the time when their services may be again required, or an award on account of services already rendered; but whatever the terms of the original grant, there can be little doubt that, under the present regulations, half-pay, except when distinctly named retired half-pay, is in the nature of a retaining fee. This allowance is on quite a different footing in the navy and army.

In the royal navy of Great Britain, officers are merely appointed to serve during the period a certain ship is in commission; when this expires, their employment ceases, and they revert to a state of non-activity. As there are always many more naval officers than appointments for them to fill, a considerable number are at all times on the noneffective list. These are placed on half-pay until again called upon to serve; the amount of such half-pay being usually about 60 per cent. of the full pay of each grade. Half-pay is thus in the