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4. Longfellow," Paul Revere's Ride." (Tell this in the first person.) 5. Southey, "The Battle of Blenheim."

6. Wordsworth, "Lucy Gray.”

7. Shakespeare, "A Midsummer-Night's Dream," Act III, scene ii, lines 6-34. (Tell this in the third person.)

8. Lanier, "Nine from Eight."

9. Browning," An Incident of the French Camp."

B. COHERENCE IN THE WHOLE COMPOSITION We can learn much about the organization of longer articles by making outlines and synopses of those written by real masters. If the outline of a good article is well made, it should show, preferably in complete sentences, all the important parts in their relation to each other and to the whole. It is seldom wise to carry the analysis beyond the second subhead. The ability to make such outlines is necessary before one can write long articles himself or even read with intelligent appreciation such articles by others. Here is the outline of a lecture by Thomas Henry Huxley.1

A. What is yeast?

YEAST

I. The microscopist has shown that:

a. It is a substance composed of an enormous multitude of definitely formed grains floating in a liquid;

b. These grains (torulæ) constantly reproduce by budding.

II. The chemist has shown that:

a. The yeast plant is composed of a cellulose bag containing a vegeto-animal semifluid;

b. Its active parts contain protein,

I. which is similar to the fundamental substance of

every animal organism.

1 A part of a lecture (1781) on Protoplasm and the Germ Theory, quoted in Andrews's" Specimens of Discourse." (If a minute and exhaustive analysis of a long piece of writing is desired, see Lamont's edition of Burke's "Speech on Conciliation with America," pp. lvi-lxiv. Ginn and Company.)

B. What is the nature of the products of fermentation?
I. The sugar is broken up into:

a. Carbonic acid gas,

b. Alcohol, and

c. A small quantity of succinic acid and glycerine.

C. What causes fermentation?

I. The torula must cause fermentation; for there is none if
a. The liquid of the yeast, from which the torula has been
removed by straining, is used;

b. The torula is killed by heating; or

c. Air, in which the torula floats, is excluded.

II. Theories of how the torula causes fermentation are:

a. Faulty theories:

1. Fabroni's,

2. Thenard's.

b. Accepted theory:

I. Liebig's: that particles of sugar are shaken asunder by the forces at work in the yeast plant.

D. Applications of these discoveries have proved :

I. That all plants are vitally related to animal life; and

II. That many diseases are caused by a similar multiplication of germs.

EXERCISE 235 - Written

Make a skeleton outline of one of the following, taking pains to show by the form of the outline the relation of the parts:

1. Irving, "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow."

2. Hawthorne, "The Great Stone Face."

3. Emery," How to Enjoy Pictures" (any chapter).

4. Addison and Steele, "The Spectator" (a selected paper).

5. Parkman, " Conspiracy of Pontiac" (Vol. I, chaps. i, iv, or v, or almost any chapter of Parkman's).

6. Stevenson," Kidnapped ” (chap. x).

7. Bible Story (David, Joseph, Esther, Ruth).

8. Kittredge, Introduction to " English and Scottish Popular Ballads."

EXERCISE 236- Written and Oral

SYNOPSIS AND OUTLINES

Using the outline that you made in Exercise 235, prepare a three-minute synopsis of the article; one of five minutes; one of one minute. Present to the class the synopsis called for by the teacher. Can the rest of the class make a good outline from your oral synopsis?

C. WRITING A CONNECTED COMPOSITION BASED ON READING

I. FINDING MATERIAL

It sometimes happens that you are called on to discuss some subject about which you have little exact knowledge. In this case you can do nothing sincere without first getting a number of facts and then interpreting them; consequently you must learn not only how to find facts but also how to interpret them before beginning actually to write. If you know the first and not the second, you will surely become a copyist and not a composer.

Every one should know what reference books are available for him, and what, in general, they contain. Get acquainted with the encyclopedias, dictionaries, and hand-books in your library, so that you will have at least one valuable kind of knowledge, the knowledge of where you may find information. Then, when beginning to work on some topic, find out what special aids on it your library contains. In large libraries there is usually some one to show you the uses of the catalogue and indexes; in small ones you must depend for the most part on the titles of books and then on their tables of contents and indexes.

Not all that you find, of course, will be equally reliable; therefore you must learn to weigh your evidence, to decide what you may trust. Many books and articles called "authorities" are obviously written in a partial or partisan vein that makes them almost valueless for your purpose. Government reports, most books that have survived long use (unless, as in the case of the sciences, there have been many changes in recent years), books written by men who have learned to find the truth as well as to tell it these you may trust. Of course no general statement can do much more than put you on your guard against such articles as are not trustworthy. You must consider carefully for yourself each particle of evidence offered. Frequently a very casual examination of a book will show whether it is too detailed, too technical, or too old for your use.

Learn to use the preface, the table of contents, and the index. The preface in many a book will make clear at once what the author's purpose is, what his attitude is, and what his sources are. The table of contents shows in tabular form the organization of the book, and from it you may find what part, if any, is of interest to you. The index will tell where in the book numerous details are discussed. Unfortunately prefaces, tables of contents, and indexes vary in fulness, accuracy, and excellence.

EXERCISE 237 - Oral

LEARNING TO USE BOOKS

Examine the preface, the table of contents, and the index in three books that are not primarily literature. Report to the class what each contains and how it differs from the corresponding part in the other books.

EXERCISE 238- Oral and Written

LEARNING TO USE NEWSPAPERS

Books are supposed to present final judgments; newspapers give what seems to be the truth from day to day, often correcting or denying in one issue what has appeared in a previous one. It is important for readers to learn to sift the mass of newspaper statements for themselves, to throw away what is clearly untrue or of no value, and to save the kernel of fact in perhaps a page of chaff.

Select some subject now being treated in the papers; for instance, a strike, change in football rules, a trip by the President, preparation for a "sane" Fourth of July, municipal improvements, or, best of all, some active local issue. Read daily what is written about it and decide, as best you can, what is true. Make a statement in your notebook each day of the facts as they seem then. When the mattersome phase of it is concluded, write an account of it from the beginning of your note-taking to the end. Imagine that your article is intended for a certain magazine, as this may help you to determine what to include and what to omit.

or

II. TAKING NOTES

When working up an article you will need to take notes. For these use loose leaves of a notebook or cards of a uniform size, since they can be so ordered at any time as to bring together all the material on each phase of the subject. Moreover, it is a considerable saving to write but one note on each sheet or card. Paper is cheaper than time, and it is no economy to save paper and secure an effect that is poor through lack of organization.

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