[311] For several years scientific research and experimental design work have been conducted in the Soviet Union on the creation of artificial satellites of the earth. As already reported in the press, the first launching of the satellites in the USSR were planned for realization in accordance with the scientific research program of the International Geophysical Year. As a result of very intensive work by scientific research institutes and design bureaus the first artificial satellite in the world has been created. On October 4, 1957, this first satellite was successfully launched in the USSR. According to preliminary data, the carrier rocket has imparted to the satellite the required orbital velocity of about 8000 meters per second. At the present time the satellite is describing elliptical trajectories around the earth, and its flight can be observed in the rays of the rising and setting sun with the aid of very simple optical instruments (binoculars, telescopes, etc.). According to calculations which now are being supplemented by direct observations, the satellite will travel at altitudes up to 900 kilometers above the surface of the earth; the time for a complete revolution of the satellite will be one hour and thirty-five minutes; the angle of inclination of its orbit to the equatorial plane is 65 degrees. On October 5 the satellite will pass over the Moscow area twice-at 1:46 a.m. and at 6:42 a.m. Moscow time. Reports about the subsequent movement of the first artificial satellite launched in the USSR on October 4 will be issued regularly by broadcasting stations. The satellite has a spherical shape 58 centimeters in diameter and weighs 83.6 kilograms. It is equipped with two radio transmitters continuously emitting signals at frequencies of 20.005 and 40.002 megacycles per second (wave lengths of about 15 and 7.5 meters, respectively). The power of the transmitters ensures reliable reception of the signals by a broad range of radio amateurs. The signals have the form of telegraph pulses of about 0.3 second's duration with a [312] pause of the same duration. The signal of one frequency is sent during the pause in the signal of the other frequency. Scientific stations located at various points in the Soviet Union are tracking the satellite and determining the elements of its trajectory. Since the density of the rarefied upper layers of the atmosphere is not accurately known, there are no data at present for the precise determination of the satellite's lifetime and of the point of its entry into the dense layers of the atmosphere. Calculations have shown that owing to the tremendous velocity of the satellite, at the end of its existence it will burn up on reaching the dense layers of the atmosphere at an altitude of several tens of kilometers. As early as the end of the nineteenth century the possibility of realizing cosmic flights by means of rockets was first scientifically substantiated in Russia by the works of the outstanding Russian scientist K[onstantin] E. Tsiolkovskii [Tsiolkovskiy]. The successful launching of the first man-made earth satellite makes a most important contribution to the treasure-house of world science and culture. The scientific experiment accomplished at such a great height is of tremendous importance for learning the properties of cosmic space and for studying the earth as a planet of our solar system. During the International Geophysical Year the Soviet Union proposes launching several more artificial earth satellites. These subsequent satellites will be larger and heavier and they will be used to carry out programs of scientific research. Artificial earth satellites will pave the way to interplanetary travel and, apparently, our contemporaries will witness how the freed and conscientious labor of the people of the new socialist society makes the most daring dreams of mankind a reality. Document II-15 Document title: John Foster Dulles to James C. Hagerty, October 8, 1957, with attached: "Draft Statements on the Soviet Satellite," October 5, 1957. Source: John Foster Dulles Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas. The Eisenhower administration had anticipated the imminent launch of the first Soviet satellite, and had given some thought to potential public reaction to such an event. But when the launch occurred on October 4, 1957, the administration was surprised by the amount of public concern. Four days after the event, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles sent White House Press Secretary James Hagerty his suggestions for the text of a press release that would place the Sputnik launch in its proper context and reassure the public. Although Dulles' comments did not result in a press release, they did form the basis for much of the administration's “official” comment about the Soviet achievement as well as the core of President Eisenhower's comments at a press conference on October 9th. This document does not contain the draft statement prepared by Allen Dulles, Director of the Central Intelligence Agency and brother of the Secretary of State, which is mentioned in the cover letter. [1] Draft by JFD The launching by the Soviet Union of the first earth satellite is an event of considerable technical and scientific importance. However, that importance should not be exaggerated. What has happened involves no basic discovery and the value of a satellite to mankind will for a long time be highly problematical. That the Soviet Union was first in this project is due to the high priority which the Soviet Union gives to scientific training and to the fact that since 1945 the Soviet Union has particularly emphasized developments in the fields of missiles and of outer space. The Germans had made a major advance in this field and the results of their effort were largely taken over by the Russians when they took over the German assets, human and material, at Peenemünde, the principal German base for research and experiment in the use of outer space. This encouraged the Soviets to concentrate upon developments in this field with a use of [2] resources and effort not possible in time of peace to societies where the people are free to engage in pursuits of their own choosing and where public monies are limited by representatives of the people. Despotic societies which can command the activities and resources of all their people can often produce spectacular accomplishments. These, however, do not prove that freedom is not the best way. While the United States has not given the same priority to outer space developments as has the Soviet Union, it has not neglected this field. It already has a capability to utilize outer space for missiles and it is expected to launch an earth satellite during the present geophysical year in accordance with a program which has been under orderly development over the past two years. The United States welcomes the peaceful achievement of the Soviet scientists. It hopes that the acclaim which has resulted from [3] their effort will encourage the Soviet Union to seek development along peaceful lines and seek to enrich the spiritual and material welfare of their people. What is happening with reference to outer space makes more than ever important the proposal made by the United States and the other free world members of the Disarmament Subcommittee. I recall my White House statement of August 28 which emphasized the proposal of the Western Powers at London to establish a study group to the end that "outer space shall be used only for peaceful, not military, purposes.' Document II-16 Document title: President's Science Advisory Committee, "Introduction to Outer Space," March 26, 1958, pp. 1-2, 6, 13-15. Source: NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Office, NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. An initial assignment for the President's Science Advisory Committee, which was formed in the aftermath of the launches of Sputnik I and II, was to assess the appropriate direction and pace for the U.S. space program. The committee focused heavily on the scientific aspects of the space program. With the president's endorsement, on March 26, 1958, it released a report outlining the importance of space activities, but recommended a cautiously measured pace. Statement by the President In connection with a study of space science and technology made at my request, the President's Science Advisory Committee, of which Dr. James R. Killian is Chairman, has prepared a brief "Introduction to Outer Space" for the nontechnical reader. This is not science fiction. This is a sober, realistic presentation prepared by leading scientists. I have found this statement so informative and interesting that I wish to share it with all the people of America, and indeed with all the people of the earth. I hope that it can be widely disseminated by all news media for it clarifies many aspects of space and space technology in a way which can be helpful to all people as the United States proceeds with its peaceful program in space science and exploration. Every person has the opportunity to share through understanding in the adventures which lie ahead. This statement of the Science Advisory Committee makes clear the opportunities which a developing space technology can provide to extend man's knowledge of the earth, the solar system, and the universe. These opportunities reinforce my conviction that we and other nations have a great responsibility to promote the peaceful use of space and to utilize the new knowledge obtainable from space science and technology for the benefit of all mankind. [1] Dwight D. Eisenhower Introduction to Outer Space What are the principal reasons for undertaking a national space program? What can we expect to gain from space science and exploration? What are the scientific laws and facts and the technological means which it would be helpful to know and understand in reaching sound policy decisions for a United States space program and its management by the Federal Government? This statement seeks to provide brief and introductory answers to these questions. It is useful to distinguish among four factors which give importance, urgency, and inevitability to the advancement of space technology. The first of these factors is the compelling urge of man to explore and to discover, the thrust of curiosity that leads men to try to go where no one has gone before. Most of the surface of the earth has now been explored and men now turn to the exploration of outer space as their next objective. Second, there is the defense objective for the development of space technology. We wish to be sure that space is not used to endanger our security. If space is to be used for military purposes, we must be prepared to use space to defend ourselves. Third, there is the factor of national prestige. To be strong and bold in space technology will enhance the prestige of the United States among the peoples of the world and create added confidence in our scientific, technological, industrial, and military strength. Fourth, space technology affords new opportunities for scientific observation and experiment [2] which will add to our knowledge and understanding of the earth, the solar system, and the universe. The determination of what our space program should be must take into consideration all four of these objectives. While this statement deals mainly with the use of space for scientific inquiry, we fully recognize the importance of the other three objectives. In fact it has been the military quest for ultra long-range rockets that has provided man with new machinery so powerful that it can readily put satellites in orbit and, before long, send instruments out to explore the moon and nearby planets. In this way, what was at first a purely military enterprise has opened up an exciting era of exploration that few men, even a decade ago, dreamed would come in this century.... [6] Will the Results Justify the Costs? Since the rocket power plants for space exploration are already in existence or being developed for military need, the cost of additional scientific research, using these rockets, need not be exorbitant. Still, the cost will not be small, either. This raises an important question that scientists and the general public (who will pay the bill) both must face: Since there are still so many unanswered scientific questions and problems all around us on earth, why should we start asking new questions and seeking out new problems in space? How can the results possibly justify the cost? Scientific research, of course, has never been amenable to rigorous cost accounting in advance. Nor, for that matter, has exploration of any sort. But if we have learned one lesson, it is that research and exploration have a remarkable way of paying off-quite apart from the fact that they demonstrate that man is alive and insatiably curious. And we all feel richer for knowing what explorers and scientists have learned about the universe in which we live. It is in these terms that we must measure the value of launching satellites and sending rockets into space.... [13] the scientific opportunities are so numerous and so inviting that scientists from many countries will certainly want to participate. Perhaps the International Geophysical Year will suggest a model for the international exploration of space in the years and decades to come. The timetable...suggests the approximate order in which some of the scientific and technical objectives mentioned in this review may be attained. The timetable is not broken down into years, since there is yet too much uncertainty about the scale of the effort that will be made. The timetable simply lists various types of space investigations and goals under three broad headings: Early, Later, Still Later.... [14] EARLY 1. Physics 2. Geophysics 3. Meteorology 4. Minimal Moon Contact 5. Experimental Communications LATER 1. Astronomy 2. Extensive Communications 3. Biology 4. Scientific Lunar Investigation 5. Minimal Planetary Contact 6. Human Flight in Orbit STILL LATER 1. Automated Lunar Exploration 2. Automated Planetary Exploration 3. Human Lunar Exploration and Return AND MUCH LATER STILL Human Planetary Exploration [15] In conclusion, we venture two observations. Research in outer space affords new opportunities in science, but it does not diminish the importance of science on earth. Many of the secrets of the universe will be fathomed in laboratories on earth, and the progress of our science and technology and the welfare of the Nation require that our regular scientific programs go forward without loss of pace, in fact at an increased pace. It would not be in the national interest to exploit space science at the cost of weakening our efforts in other scientific endeavors. This need not happen if we plan our national program for space science and technology as part of a balanced national effort in all science and technology. Our second observation is prompted by technical considerations. For the present, the rocketry and other equipment used in space technology must usually be employed at the very limit of its capacity. This means that failures of equipment and uncertainties of schedule are to be expected. It therefore appears wise to be cautious and modest in our predictions and pronouncements about future space activities—and quietly bold in our execution.... Document II-17 Document title: "National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958," Public Law 85-568, 72 Stat., 426. Signed by the president on July 29, 1958. Source: Record Group 255, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. After the launch of Sputnik and the publicity surrounding it, the Eisenhower administration moved quickly to create an American civilian space agency. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was too small for the task, however; the White House decided that a new agency, with NACA as its core, but also including rocket and space engineers involved in various defense programs, was needed. On March 5, 1958, President Eisenhower approved a final memorandum ordering the Bureau of Budget to draft a space bill immediately. It was ready three weeks later and sent to Congress on April 2. Senator Lyndon Johnson had a great deal of influence on the form of the final bill, which was passed after lengthy congressional deliberations. In particular, Congress added to the administration bill a requirement for a National Aeronautics and Space Council as a presidential-level policy coordinating board. To provide for research into problems of flight within and outside the earth's atmosphere, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, |