quently are seen sandy tracks, and others of a marly character. I did not observe continuous ridges of mountains, but isolated groups planted on elevated land; the mountains are round, or slightly conical, and generally consist of heaps of broken stones. It is rarely that picturesque or huge rocks present themselves, and in general it may be said that the whole Desert is very monotonous. Volcanic productions are frequently seen, but I will not enter further into details, for the examination of the productions of the Desert will form the substance of communications to the University of Santiago. The climate, as a matter of course, offers many variations, according to the situation of the various localities. I have already mentioned that in the summer months there is a strong wind during the day from the W., which is cold at great elevations, and it blew with such violence at times that we could not put up our tent. At night the Terral or land breeze from the E. blows but mildly; it is however penetrating and freezing, because it descends from the Andes. In the basin of Punta Negra, and that of Atacama, the heat of the day is very great, notwithstanding their elevation above the sea, because the soil, which is dry, arid, and stony, is heated strongly by the sun's rays, and because there is, as in all deserts, no shade: thus, to observe the temperature during the day, we had no other shade than under the belly of the mule, the sun being then nearly perpendicular. A consequence of the rarity and dryness of the air is the great cold felt at night, caused by the radiation, so that at many of our resting places the thermometer was below zero in the morning ere the sun rose. In Rio Frio the thermometer at 5 A.M. was at 7° C. below zero, and in the hottest hours of the day did not exceed 19° C., whilst in Atacama it showed 11.2 C. at 6 A.M., and 27° C. at 1 P.M.

The dryness and extraordinary scarcity of rain in this desert portion of the globe is, without doubt, the cause of its sterility. In the town of Atacama sometimes it does not rain for 18 months, and even in the Andes the rains and snows are rare. In the month of February moisture is precipitated occasionally, and we experienced three slight falls of hail, and even snow. For this reason there are so few summits covered with snow. The line of perpetual snow may be about 4,500 to 4,800 mètres (5,380 to 5,770 varas about 17,310 feet). Every 10 or 20 years heavy rains occur, which produce in each ravine a deluge, the effects of which are most clearly seen in the rubble and stuff forming the slopes of the valleys. The last rains were in the month of May, in 1848, when the Salado river ran into the sea.

=

I have heard much said as to the great electrical state of the air of the Desert. We experienced nothing in particular, excepting that every night there was much lightning in the Cordillera, principally between Filiposo and Rio Frio, and generally without thunder. The mirage is very common, and seen daily. We col

lected 5 skins of quadrupeds, 5 heads of same, 73 bird skins, 25 reptiles, 300 insects, 95 molluscas, 387 species of plants, seeds of 125 to 150 species of plants, a small number of bulbs, potatoes, and live plants (quiscos-cacti), 200 specimens of rocks, shells, &c. Mr. Döll is occupied in the construction of the Map of the Desert.*

Note.-Professor Domeyko, of the University of Santiago, who was most obliging to me during my stay in the capital, gave me the following analysis of the Meteoric Iron of Imilac:-Iron 88.54, Nickel 8.24, Cobalt 1.14, Silica 0·16; and he thinks that the Silica exists here as Silicium. The Professor gives the following analyses of the Olivine from the Volcan of Antuco (Chile) and that of the Atacama Meteorite :

We see by the foregoing that one position at least, that of Imilac, has been visited and reported upon by scientific men.

Dr. Turner's analysis of the iron said to be found at Tocanado is,-Iron, 93 400; Nickel, 6618; Cobalt, 0.535. Doubtless the specimens sent by Dr. Reid to Munich will be examined.-WM. BOLLAERT, F.R.G.S.

* A copy of this map has been received from Dr. Philippi.-ED.

VIII. Observations on the Coal Formation in Chile, S. America. By WILLIAM BOLLAERT, Esq., F.R.G.S.

Read, June 11, 1855.

SPANISH and some old foreign writers mention the existence of coal as occurring on the coast as well as in the interior of Chile. During the period of the Spanish occupation of the country, for all purposes in which fuel was required, wood or charcoal was resorted to. Since the great political changes and separation of the colonies from Spain, and their formation into independent governments, with the influx of foreigners with their trade and arts, Chile in particular has commenced being a manufacturing country; a very important branch is that of copper-smelting, in which the native coal is now being used; the steamers are supplied with it, also iron and other foundries, and it is used for domestic purposes and exportation.

As various opinions have been expressed as to the character of Chile coal, I propose in the following remarks to consider the subject in its several bearings.

In 1825-7, whilst residing in Peru, I saw the Talcahuano coal used in the forge; it was very light, friable, sulphurous, but slightly bituminous, and so inferior that it was thrown aside:* it was more of a lignite than coal, and little hope was then entertained that a useful article could be extracted from the coal beds of Talcahuano or its vicinity.

In 1828, in company with Mr. George Smith of Iquique, in a survey of the island Quiriquina, in the bay of Concepcion, we found indications of carbonaceous matter, such as was met with at Talcahuano, also at Lirquen in the same bay; but from its peculiar character, and the soft sandstones accompanying it, our impression was, that we could only refer it to a lignite formation, or at most to that of a very imperfect coal, and it did not appear to us that by following the seam, an article of much better quality would be obtained.† Darwin, who visited Chile 1832-36, is the first who has given us any idea of the geology of the country, and when adverting to that of the coast, indicates granites, schists, sandstones, lignite, &c., and imperfect coals, and states that the coalformation from Chiloe to Concepcion is a very ancient tertiary one. The fact, however, of there being imperfect coal in the country, caused the mines of Talcahuano and Lirquen to be worked, and search to be made in a southern direction, when the bay of Coronel was examined; and as coal was then particularly

*Surface and weatherworn coal.

So thought Darwin in 1835.

Coal was found here and mentioned by Capt. Fitz-Roy in 1835. See Voyages, Adventures, &c., of Beagle, vol. ii.

required for copper-smelting, it was found there of a better quality and in abundance, and the neighbouring district of Lota was also discovered to contain coal.

*

In the year 1840 the coal of the Morro Hill at Talcahuano was examined by Mr. Wheelwright and Mr. Peacock, the superintendents of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company; and after several trials had been made with specimens from this spot under the boilers of the steamer 'Peru,' it was found to give abundance of steam, although yielding a large amount of residuum, and about 20 per cent. greater consumption than the best Welsh coals, requiring consequently more space in the ship and greater labour in working. These gentlemen, however, being thrown upon their own resources by the non-arrival of coal from England, continued their researches, and commenced the working of the mines in earnest, by driving levels and sinking pits in the hill of the Morro, and actually worked out 30,000 tons, which was all burnt on board the steamers 'Peru' and 'Chile' during their voyages up and down the coast. Mr. Peacock, with the aid of a ship's blacksmith, managed to construct a boring-rod, and by boring in the plain at the back of the Morro, he discovered a seam of superior coal at the depth of 130 feet below the level of the sea, where he sunk a pit 9 feet in diameter, bringing up the water by means of a jack-roll and buckets; but in the absence of a pumping-engine (not to be obtained on the coast at that time) it gained on the sinkers just as the seam was won, and the pit was filled with water.

About this time large shipments of guano were being made from Peru, and the freight of English coal being reduced to 20s. per ton, it was found cheaper to use English coal, and the works were not prosecuted. The increase of steamers on the coast for the last three years caused a larger demand, and the seam at Lota was at once opened, and is now being worked to a great extent: it was worked, as was Coronel, by means of levels, but which method is now being abandoned, particularly at Lota, for that of working by pits. Some two years since the Lota Coal Company was established, and the operations are now carried on under the management of M. B. Whyte, Esq., according to the English mode of working, but steam-engines will shortly supersede the use of oxen at the whims; and as the requirements of coal are rapidly increasing, Lota --not long since part of the wilderness road to Araucowill be a flourishing locality.

My own impression in regard to Chile coal, when previously in the country, was, that it was a lignite, or at most, a very imperfect coal; however, on arriving at Iquique, in Peru, 1854, and examining the fuel from Coronel and Lota, and seeing it used with ad

* Lord Cochrane, Captain Basil Hall, and others used the Concepcion coal.

vantage at the nitrate of soda refineries of Tarapaca, I was obliged to confess that there was a coal-formation in Chile.

Having occasion to go to Valparaiso on the 3rd of June, I took passage in the steamer New Granada,' on board of which vessel I had the opportunity of observing the practical application of Lota coal to steaming purposes. The chief engineer, Mr. Henderson, informed me that it was now more than twelve months since he had used this coal: the first two voyages the ship was deficient in steam, on account of their not being acquainted with the burning of the coal, and furnaces not being properly adapted to its use; but a little alteration being made in them, by giving more air and less draught, there has not been the slightest difficulty in using Lota coal, and that the difference of consumption is somewhat more than good Welsh coal. The engineer stated that it is said to be liable to spontaneous combustion, but that in his experience he has not seen the slightest tendency to do so.

The following embraces a most important item regarding this coal in a pecuniary point of view :

The New Granada' consumed 15 tons Welsh coal per day, value 18 dolls. per ton, equal to 270 dolls. per day; this same steamer consumes 18 tons of Lota coal at 6 dolls. per ton, which is a saving of 18,360 dolls. per annum, or 3,670Z.

6

From a communication written on board the steamer Yankee Blade,' between Valparaiso and Panamá, dated April 12th, 1854, the following is extracted :

"The quality of the Lota coal is excellent, and superior to that hitherto found in Chile; it is a rich bituminous article. As to the facilities of loading, the Yankee Blade' took in 700 tons in 3 days. Lota is a port of entry, allowing vessels in ballast to enter there direct from foreign ports. The steamer 'America' made, with Lota coal, her voyage from Valparaiso to Panamá in less than 10 days; the last 24 hours the Yankee Blade' ran 277 miles, and the difference between the Lota and Cardiff coal was only 5 per cent. in favour of Cardiff."

I landed at Lota the 6th of June (Lutrin Point, lat. 37° 4' 10" S., long. 73° 16' 5" W.). The port is good, and protected from "Northers." There was great activity observed in raising the coal from the pits; it is screened at the pit mouth, bagged and weighed, carted to the beach, put into launches, and by these taken on board. The present settlement is along the summit of the hills, containing a population of more than 600 labourers, some being Scotch coal miners. I examined the surface of the country, which is undulating land and ravines; on the sea-shore are observed indurated sandstones and conglomerates, and in places the coal seams cropping out. The geological formation is, as Darwin states, an old tertiary; continuing easterly the