costs no more to grow resistant than susceptible varieties. Excellent progress has been made in most research projects where entomologists, pathologists, and plant breeders have joined in a concerted effort to develop suitable crop varieties which possess resistance to these pests. As examples, progress has and is being made in the development of wheat varieties resistant to the hessian fly, corn varieties resistant to the European corn borer and the corn earworm, and alfalfa varieties resistant to the spotted alfalfa aphid. Currently there is urgent need to meet vegetable and oilseed insect problems on which there is little or no research at present. It is planned to undertake research on varieties of vegetables resistant to such pests as cucumber beetles, plant lice, flea beetles, and various leaf feeding insects and to aphid and leafhopper vectors of virus diseases of beans, peas, potatoes, and tomatoes; also, on varieties of soybeans resistant to stinkbugs and corn earworm.

Investigations underway on alfalfa and other forage legumes would be strengthened and additional support would be provided for programs on varieties resistant to insects attacking oats and barley. Of particular need is the development of alfalfa and red clover resistant to the alfalfa weevil, spittle bug, and clover root borer. These insects threaten the two most important hay legumes in eastern United States. Control of these insects received a setback in early 1960 when restrictions were placed on the use of insecticides. The previous year chemical control measures in Virginia alone for only the alfalfa weevil cost farmers approximately $235,000. Without chemical control estimated losses to alfalfa in that State from the alfalfa weevil have been in excess of $2 million annually. The estimated annual losses from these insects to alfalfa and red clover in eastern United States approximates $10 million.

Breeding peanuts for resistance to insects, diseases and plant parasitic nematodes would also be expanded. The larvae of the southern corn rootworm is a major insect pest of peanuts in the Southeast, causing an estimated $3 million loss annually in Virginia and comparable losses in North Carolina and Georgia where the pest has spread in recent years. Diazinon, an organic phosphate compound, is currently used for rootworm control. In 1962, an estimated 200,000 acres were treated in Virginia and North Carolina for rootworm control. However, the insect has shown marked ability to develop resistance to insecticides in the past and it is assumed the same situation will prevail in the future. There is need to breed commercially acceptable varieties of peanuts which incorporate resistance or tolerance to the rootworm, or early varieties that will mature 2 to 3 weeks earlier than present varieties and thus escape the ravages of the root

worm.

In the Southwest there are similar serious problems with root diseases of peanuts, as well as plant parasitic nematodes, principally the red-neck peanut worm and the lesser cornstalk bore. Research would be undertaken to evaluate new lines bred for resistance to these pests.

Development of safer insecticides, $200,000.-Every effort in research is being made to develop alternate methods of insect control, but the need for insecticides will exist for the foreseeable future. Research on insecticides must be concentrated on the search for ways of using insecticides for maximum safety to man and his environment. The need for more precise and more rapid methods of determining minute amounts of residues in agricultural crops, meat, milk, soils, and water becomes continually more acute. More restrictive tolerance limits for insecticides in foods are being applied. Research on the development of analytical methods and analytical work would be strengthened. The effort to find safer, nonresidue forming insecticides would be intensified for such insects as the codling moth, orchard mites, pear psylla, green peach aphid on fruits and vegetables, alfalfa, dairy, and livestock insects, and various soil pests. Work on insecticides less harmful to the honey bee and other pollinating insects would also be strengthened.

Study of toxicological and pathological effects of agricultural chemicals in livestock and poultry, $100,000.-Basic research needs to be initiated to develop new approaches to the control, prevention, detoxification and treatment of the toxicosis of livestock to herbicidal and insecticidal compounds, herbicide and insecticide treated plants, and poisonous plants.

It would include studies of cytological and histochemical changes to determine the presence of tissue residues and possible carcinogenic agents; effect on hormones, enzyme systems and other processes; and techniques for determining the degradation of ingested toxic substances in the body for assessing the dangers which result from the use of chemicals. It is evident at this time that such

substances may have a serious effect on animals. They must be recognized and made known when a substance has been found and recommended procedures have been developed for the prevention, control, and effective treatment of affected animals, prior to or as soon as possible after its release for general use. Research would be undertaken to develop techniques for diagnosis of specific types of plant poisoning in animals and to develop effective alleviating agents for prevention and methods of treatment. As many poisonous plants, especially larkspur, halogeton, and loco weed, are increasing on range areas each year, and losses are reaching a staggering figure in numbers of animals affected and economic loss, detailed basic research is necessary to find ways in which the livestock producer can safely graze his animals on ranges heavily infested with poisonous plants.

Development of methods of handling animals and feed to minimize or eliminate pesticide residue hazards, $75,000.-The general use of pesticides on animals or in crop production imposes the danger of their residues causing contamination to animal products. The need for information by producers to carry out their responsibilities for preventing the occurrence of residues in animal products is critical. The loss of markets by dairy farmers that repeatedly occur through no fault of their own because of residue in milk in a case at point. Research must be conducted to guide animal producers in adopting practices that will avoid the occurrence of residues from pesticides in animal products and to eliminate the need for use of pesticides to promote efficient animal production. The proposed increase would be used to expand research underway to develop animal and feed handling and use methods to minimize or eliminate residues so they will not accumulate in animal tissues and secretions, and to exploit the possibilities, indicated in preliminary studies, that certain rumen microorganisms can destroy pesticide residues in feeds; and to develop management practices that will control pests without resort to the use of pesticide chemicals. Control of livestock parasites, $100,000.-At present there is an almost complete reliance on chemicals (antiparasiticides) for treatment and control of internal parasites of livestock. Despite great progress during the last 45 years, suitable measures are still not available for controlling about two-thirds of the injurious internal parasites of food animals. Losses from parasites are estimated to exceed $1 billion annually. The objectives of the proposed increased research effort are to reduce reliance on chemicals for the control of internal parasites and to assure safety from toxic residues when chemicals are used. The major effort would be placed on developing biological methods for control. Emphasis would be placed on developing and evaluating immunological, serological, pathobiological, environmental, genetic, and managerial procedures for the control and eradication of internal parasites.

The potential for vaccines against parasitic diseases is tremendous and the surface has barely been scratched in this area. Basic research would be undertaken on tissue culture techniques for the propagation of whole parasites, and cells from parasites. Irradiation of lungworm larvae has attenuated them to a point whereby they produce immunity in calves against lungworm disease. This approach would be explored for other parasitic diseases.

Improved equipment for applying pesticides to tree fruit crops, $50,000.— Research on the improvement of pesticide application equipment is needed to achieve greater effectiveness in the use of pesticides while reducing the application rates required. Compounds are often applied in excessive quantity or frequency because of such inefficiencies as drift, uneven coverage, or distribution methods insufficiently specific to reach the target pests. This adds to residue problems. Research would be expanded to improve spray applications and avoid drift which would involve studies to develop devices for producing uniform droplet sprays, studies to determine the effect of various additives on the flow properties of the spray, and research to modify conventional nozzles. Several processes to improve pesticide aerosol deposition would be studied in depth.

Electrical and physical methods of controlling insects, $75,000.-Because of the increasing problems of pesticide residues, there is urgent need to develop all possible methods of nonchemical control of insect pests. Light traps have been used in a limited way for some time. Recent investigations at Oxford, N.C., using light traps over a large area for the control of hornworms and other tobacco insects, have been very promising. In order to eliminate border effects and thus establish the potential of this method of control, a larger area of application would be used, as well as projects at other locations.

30-087-64-pt. 2-7

Dr. RODENHISER. Now, advances made during the past 20 years to control pests by the use of chemical agents have been a major factor in the attainment of our present high level of agricultural production efficiency. However, we are still confronted with tremendous losses due to insects and diseases and weeds. It is estimated that production losses to crops from insects amounts to over $2 billion a year. Our estimated crop losses from plant diseases is something over $3 billion a year. Our estimated crop losses from weeds amount to about $2 billion a year.

The use of chemical agents for control of these pests have been one of the major factors in reducing losses, even to this level. However, there have been varied and wide uses of these agents that have given rise to known and potential hazard problems. Our problem now is to expand our research to develop alternate methods of pest controls. In fact, several years ago, major shifts in research emphasis were made to explore more fully biological and other methods of pest control that would minimize these hazards. Dr. Shaw, in his testimony identified these methods as biological control for insect parasites, diseases, and predators, insect attractants, sterility methods of insect control, the development of crops resistant to insects, diseases, and nematodes and research on nonchemical methods for control.

I would point out, that the report of the President's Science Advisory Committee emphasized the urgent need to intensify our efforts in these areas of research.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

We have already made some progress in biological control, particularly so far as parasites and predators are concerned. Most of our injurious insects have been introduced from foreign countries. In many instances, they have been kept under reasonable bounds there, due to the parasites and predators that are present in the country of origin. When they are introduced into this country, however, they tend to increase to highly destructive proportions.

For the past 40 years, we have been seeking and introducing beneficial insects, parasites, and predators to control our major insect pests. As a matter of fact, 650 parasites and predators have been introduced into this country during this 40-year period. About 120 of these have been released, and 5 of them are well established. We have had outstanding successes as a result of this with several insects, particularly in the control of cottony-cushion scale in the Southwest, citrus black fly, wooly apple aphid, the Comstock mealy bug and several scale insects.

In 1963, we have imported 22 different species. We have released 16, and 2 of them are now well established, 1 of them parasitic on the alfalfa weevil and the other a predator of sugarcane mealy bug in Hawaii.

We are not only interested in those parasites and predators that will control insects, but also in insects that might occur in some countries that might be used to control weeds. An example of success just recently achieved is the use of a flea beetle which is known to be rather prevalent in Argentina and some of the other countries in South America. Aquatic weeds are quite a problem in our many miles of

our waterways, irrigation ditches and bayous in southeastern United States. We knew the flea beetle in South America attacked alligator weed. One of our scientists who has been in Argentina for a period of time, studied the potentials of their flea bettle for use in control of the alligator weed in this country. It was determined that the beetle does not attack crop plants nor ornamentals in North America. It has been introduced and we are experimenting with it to determine its effectiveness in clearing up the waterways in the southern part of the United States. You will note the natural growth in the photograph on the left side where alligator weed is choking the waterways, and on the right the effective control by chemicals, the use of which may, however, present a hazard to fish and wildlife. The lower photograph shows the striped beetle feeding on alligator weed.

I next want to refer to another means of biological control, insect diseases. Naturally occurring insect disease organisms, offer a very promising method of controlling insects. We have had good results in some instances, particularly, with Bacillus thuringiensis for control of tobacco hornworm, cabbage looper, which infects several crops including cauliflower and cotton.

We have had very encouraging results with specific viruses and protozoa for the control of corn earworm, European corn borer, cabbage looper, codling moth, and boll weevil. On this chart you will note the effect of a polyhedral virus to control cabbage looper on cotton and on cauliflower [pointing]. The treated cotton leaf on the right has not been damaged.

The damage by the cabbage looper to the untreated cotton leaf is shown at the left. Likewise, at the right, we have treated cauliflower with this virus disease and you will notice it is completely free from damage, while the untreated plant at the left shows the damage that

can be done.

In this little ampule we have 34 billion polyhedral virus particles. Covering the bottom of the ampule alone there is enough of the virus to cover about 3 acres of cropland. One application, of course, will not be sufficient to control the insect throughout the season.

With the proposed additional funds for such research, we would undertake a search for new disease-causing agents affecting other important insect pests of both crops and livestock. We would intensify our research to mass produce pathogens, such as this virus, for controlling insects affecting vegetables, oilseeds, fruit and forage

crops.

For strengthening this research on predators, parasites, and diseases, we are requesting $280,000.

INSECT ATTRACTANTS

Our next item, as shown by this chart, is on insect attractants. In general, insects are attracted by specific substances. Some of them occur naturally in the insects themselves and are often associated with reproductive activity of the insects. Some occur naturally in plant hosts. Others are being synthesized by chemical procedures in the laboratory.

Dr. RODENHISER. As far as sex attractants are concerned, we have now found naturally occurring ones in 13 major insect pests. Those

of the gypsy moth and the American cockroach have been isolated and the so-called gyplure has been synthesized and produced in quantity by our chemists.

Sex attractants which have been shown to occur in 11 other major insect pests are currently under further investigation. These include pink boll worm, cabbage looper, cucumber beetle, the codling moth and the house fly. After isolation and identification of these attractants, there is a big job of synthesizing the material in quantity so that it can be further evaluated under field conditions.

I mentioned that, in addition to the naturally occurring sex attractants, chemical attractants, likewise, appear very promising. On the next chart you will note an explanation of our work with the oriental fruit fly in Hawaii. On the island of Rota, we conducted studies to determine the feasibility of eradicating this pest by experimenting on a pilot-scale basis.

In this experiment, we were able to annihilate the oriental fruit fly in about 6 months by the method depicted by this chart. You will note the gentlemen at the right are applying methyl eugenol, which is an attractant, and the insecticide, naled, to the fiberboard squares for distribution over the area by airplanes, or for distribution by hand. In this case the methyl eugenol is the chemical attractant. Naled is the chemical insecticide that kills the insect.

You will notice in the lower left-hand corner that thousands of the oriental fruit flies have been attracted to the methyl eugenol on the squares, have fed on the material, and have been killed by the insecti

cide naled.

This, we feel, is a very important advance. We think it will be an effective and practical way of distributing concentrated insecticides, along with attractants, in a confined manner instead of resorting to a general distribution of such materials. The advantages of reduced costs and safety are obvious.

Dr. SHAW. Dr. Rodenhiser, I don't believe you mentioned the time it took for eradication, which was what? About 4 months?

Dr. RODENHISER. In this case, it took only 6 months to eradicate the oriental fruit fly from the island of Rota.

We will be expanding our studies in this general area to study the nature of the attractants in a variety of insects including the cabbage looper, cucumber beetle, and codling moth, and also to synthesize those for which we have determined the chemical structure. We will also be expanding our research on behavior of the insects and how the attractants may best be used in a control program for cucumber beetle, peach tree borer, house flies, and codling moth.

We would also be initiating research to find attractants for some insects such as Japanese beetles and white-fringed beetles. For this field of research we are requesting an increase of $200,000. This item is described in the explanatory notes which have been included in the record.

STERILE INSECT RESEARCH

The use of the sterility principle in our entomological research offers a new dimension for insect pest control methods and holds great promise for reducing the amounts of insecticides required.