It bours of Soemmerring, who still prosecutes the study of anatomy with unwearied industry. We have lately from his hands, two most finished productions in every respect, on the anatomy of the eye and ear. would be unjust not to enumerate with a due tribute of applause, the labours of Zinn, Cassebohm, and Scarpa,on the same subjects. Morgagni, who taught anatomy in Padua, published a work of great utility on morbid anatomy. Dr. Baillie has of late in this country prosecuted the same subject, though in a different manner. He has published a book on the morbid anatomy of the body, and has illustrated his descriptions by a collection of the most elegant, expressive, and accurate plates. Winslow, Sabatier, and Bichat, are the authors of the most approved anatomical systems in France, and Soemmerring and Hildebrandt in Germany. We regret that it is not in our power to mention any correct and complete system by an English writer. The imperfect and contemptible ephemeral productions published under the auspices of booksellers, cannot have a place in this enumeration. UTILITY OF ANATOMY. Astronomy and anatomy, as Fontenelle observes, are the studies which present us with the most striking view of the two greatest attributes of the Supreme Being. The first of these fills the mind with the idea of his immensity, in the largeness, distances, and number of the heavenly bodies; the last astonishes with his intelligence and art in the variety and delicacy of animal mechanism. The human body has been commonly enough known by the name of microcosmus; as if it did not differ so much from the universal system of nature, in the symmetry and number of its parts, as in their size. Galen's excellent treatise on the use of the parts was composed as a prose hymn to the Creator; and abounds with as irresistible proofs of a Supreme Cause, and governing Providence, as we find in modern physico-theology. And Cicero dwells more on the structure and economy of animals, than on all the productions of nature besides, when he wants to prove the existence of the Gods from the order and beauty of the universe. He there takes a survey of the body of man in a most elegant synopsis of anatomy, and concludes thus; "Quibus rebus expositis, satis docuisse videor, homi nis natura quanto omnes anteiret animales. Ex quo debet intelligi, nec figuram situmque membrorum, nec ingenii mentisque vim talem effici potuisse fortuna." The satisfaction of mind which arises from the study of anatomy, and the influence which it must naturally have on our minds as philosophers, cannot be better conveyed than by the following passage from the same author; "Quæ contuens animus, accepit ab his cognitionem deorum, ex qua oritur pie. tas: cui conjuncta justitia est, reliquæque virtutes; ex quibus vita beata, exsistit, par et similis deorum, nulla alia re nisi immortalitate, quæ nihil ad bene vivendum pertinet, cedens cœlestibus." It would be endless to quote the animated passages of this sort, which are to be found in the physicians, philosophers, and theologists, who have considered the struc ture and functions of animals, with a view towards the Creator. It is a view that must strike us with the most awful conviction. Who can know and consider the thousand evident proofs of the astonishing art of the Creator, in forming and sustaining an animal body such as ours, without feeling the most pleasing enthusiasm? Can we seriously reflect upon this awful subject without being almost lost in adoration? Without longing for another life after this, in which we may be gratified with the highest enjoyment which our faculties and nature seem capable of, the seeing and comprehending the whole plan of the Creator, in forming the universe, and directing its operations. In the excellent work of Archdeacon Paley, on natural theology, this view of the subject is most ably explained and illus trated; and the subject is pursued through all its details. We strongly recommend this work, as exhibiting in a popular form a very interesting view of the structure and functions of animal bodies; and we subjoin the following extract as a very successful application of the argument. "It has been said, that a man cannot lift his hand to his head without finding enough to convince him of the existence of a God. And it is well said; for he has only to reflect, familiar as this action is, and simple as it seems to be, how many things are requisite for the performing of it: how many things which we understand, to say nothing of many more, probably, which we do not; viz. first, a long, hard, strong cylinder to give to the arm its firmness and tension; but which, being rigid, and, in its substanco inflexible, can only turn upon joints: secondly, therefore, joints for this purpose, one at the shoulder to raise the arm, another at the elbow to bend it: these joints continually fed with a soft mucilage, to make the parts slide easily upon one another, and holden together by strong braces, to keep them in their position: then, thirdly, strings and wires, i. e. muscles and tendons, artificially inserted for the purpose of drawing the bones in the directions in which the joints allow them to move. Hitherto, we seem to understand the mechanism pretty well; and understanding this, we possess enough for our conclusion: ne. vertheless we have hitherto only a machine standing still; a dead organization-an apparatus. To put the system in a state of activity; to set it at work; a further provision is necessary, viz. a communication with the brain by means of nerves. We know the existence of this communication, because we can see the communicating threads, and can trace them to the brain; its necessity we also know, because if the thread be cut, if the communication be intercepted, the muscle becomes paralytic: but beyond this we know little; the orga nization being too minute and subtle for our inspection. "To what has been enumerated, as officiating in the single act of a man's raising his hand to his head, must be added likewise all that is necessary, and all that contributes to the growth, nourishment, and sustentation of the limb, the repair of its waste, the preservation of its health: such as the circulation of the blood through every part of it; its lymphatics, exhalants, absorbents; its excretions and integuments, All these share in the result; join in the effect; and how all these, or any of them, come together without a designing, disposing intelligence, it is impossible to conceive," But the more immediate purposes of anatomy concern those who are to be the guardians of health; as this study is necessary to lay a foundation for all the branches of medicine. The more we know of our fabric, the more reason we have to believe, that if our senses were more acute, and our judg. ment more enlarged, we should be able to trace many springs of life, which are now hidden from us; by the same sagacity we should discover the true causes and nature of diseases; and thereby be enabled to restore the health of many, who are now, from our more confined knowledge, said to labour under incurable disorders. By such an intimate acquaintance with the economy of our bodies, we should discover even the seeds of diseases; and destroy thein, before they had taken root in the constitution. This, indeed, is a pitch of knowledge, which we must not expect to attain. But, surely, we may go some way; and, therefore, let us endeavour to go as far as we can. And if we consider that health and disease are the opposites of each other, there can be no doubt, that the study of the natural state of the body, which constitutes the one, must be the direct road to the knowledge of the other. What has been said of the usefulness of anatomy in physic, will only be called in question by the more illiterate empirics among physicians. They would discourage others from the pursuit of knowledge, which they have not themselves, and which, therefore, they cannot know the value of; and tell us that a little of anatomy is enough for a physician. That anatomy is the very basis of surgery, every body allows. It is dissection alone that can teach us where we may cut the living body with freedom and dispatch; where we may venture with great circumspection and delicacy; and where we must not, upon any account, attempt it. This informs the head, gives dexterity to the hand, and familiarizes the heart with a sort of necessary inhumanity, the use of cutting instruments upon our fellow creatures. Were it possible to doubt of the advantages which arise in surgery, from a knowledge of anatomy, we might have ample conviction by comparing the present practice with that of the ancients: and upon tracing the improvements which have been made in later times, they would be found, generally, to have sprung from a more accurate know. ledge of the parts concerned. In the hands of a good anatomist, surgery is a salutary, a divine art; but, when practised by men who know not the structure of the human body, it often becomes barbarous and criminal. The comparison of a physician to a gene. ral, is both rational and instructive. The human body under a disease, is the country which labours under a civil war or an invasion. The physician is, or should be, the dictator or general, who is to take the command, and to direct all the necessary operations. To do his duty with full advantage, a general, besides other acquirements, useful in his profession, must make himself master of the anatomy and physiology, as we may call it, of the country. He may be said to be master of the anatomy of the country, when he knows the figure, dimension, situation, and connection, of all the principal constituent parts; such as the Jakes, rivers, marshes, mountains, precipices, plains, woods, roads, passes, fords, towns, fortifications, &c. By the physiology of the country, which he ought likewise to understand, is meant all the variety of active influence which is produced by the inhabitants. If the general be well instructed in all these points, he will find a hundred occasions of drawing advantages from them; and without such knowledge, he will be for ever exposed to some fatal blunder, GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE BODY. After having considered the rise and progress of anatomy; the various discoveries that have been made in it from time to time; the great number of diligent observers who have applied themselves to this art; and, the importance of the study, not only for the prevention and cure of diseases, but in furnishing the liveliest proofs of divine wisdom; the following questions seem naturally to arise. For what purpose is there such a variety of parts in the human body? Why such a complication of nice and tender machinery? Why was there not rather a more simple, less delicate, and less expensive frame? That beginners in the study of anatomy may acquire a satisfactory, general, idea of these subjects, we shall furnish them with clear answers to all such questions. Let us then, in our imagination, make a man: in other words, let us suppose that the mind, or immaterial part, is to be placed in a corporeal fabric, to hold a correspondence with other material beings, by the intervention of the body; and then consider, a priori, what will be wanted for her accommodation. In this inquiry we shall plainly see the necessity, or advantage, and therefore the final cause of most of the parts, which we actually find in the human body. And if we consider, that in order to answer some of the requisites, human art and invention would be very insufficient; we need not be surprised if we meet with some parts of the body the use of which we cannot yet make out; and with some operations or functions which we cannot explain. We can see and comprehend that the whole bears the strong est marks of excelling wisdom and ingenuity: but the imperfect senses and capacity of man cannot pretend to reach every part of a machine, which nothing less than the intelligence and power of the Supreme Being could contrive and execute. To proceed then; in the first place, the mind, the thinking immaterial agent, must be provided with a place of immediate residence, which shall have all the requisites for the union of spirit and body; accordingly she is provided with the brain, where she dwells as governor and superintendant of the whole fabric. In the second place, as she is to hold a correspondence with all the material beings which surround her, she must be supplied with organs fitted to receive the different kinds of impressions that they will make. In fact, therefore, we see that she is provided with the organs of sense, as we call them: the eye is adapted to light, the ear to sound, the nose to smell, the mouth to taste, and the skin to touch. In the third place, she must be provided with organs of communication between her. self, in the brain, and those organs of sense, to give her information of all the impressions that are made upon them: and she must have organs between herself, in the brain, and every other part of the body, fitted to convey her commands and influence over the whole. For these purposes the nerves are actually given. They are chords, which rise from the brain, the immediate residence of the mind, and disperse themselves in branches through all parts of the body. They are intended to be occasional monitors against all such impressions as might endan ger the well-being of the whole, or of any particular part, which vindicates the Creator of all things in having actually subjected us to those many disagreeable and painful sensations which we are exposed to from a thousand accidents in life. Further, the mind, in this corporeal sys tem, must be endued with the power of moving from place to place, that she may have intercourse with a variety of objects; that she may fly from such as are disagreeable, dangerous, or hurtful, and pursue such as are pleasant or useful to her. And accordingly she is furnished with limbs, and with muscles and tendons, the instruments of motion, which are found in every part of the fabric where motion is necessary. But to support, to give firmness and shape to the fabric, to keep the softer parts in their proper places, to give fixed points and the proper direction to its motions, as well as to protect some of the more impor tant and tender organs from external injuries, there must be some firm prop-work interwoven through the whole. And, in fact, for such purposes the bones are given. The prop-work must not be made into one rigid fabric, for that would prevent motion. Therefore there are a number of bones. These pieces must all be firmly bound together to prevent their dislocation, and this end is perfectly well answered by the ligaments. The extremities of these bony pieces, where they move and rub upon one another, must have smooth and slippery surfaces, for easy motion. This is most happily provided for by the cartilages and mucus of the joints. The interstices of all these parts must be filled up with some soft and ductile matter, which shall keep them in their places, unite them, and at the same time allow them to move a little upon one another. This end is accordingly answered by the cellular membrane, or adipous substance. There must be an outward covering over the whole apparatus, both to give it a firm compactness, and to defend it from a thousand injuries, which, in fact, are the very purposes of the skin, and other integuments. As she is made for society and intercourse with beings of her own kind, she must be endued with powers of expressing and communicating her thoughts by some sensible marks or signs, which shall be both easy to herself, and admit of great variety. Hence she is provided with the organs and faculty of speech, by which she can throw out signs with amazing facility, and vary them without end. Thus we have built up an animal body which would seem to be pretty complete; but we have not yet made any provision for its duration: and, as it is the nature of matter to be altered and worked upon by matter, so in a very little time such a living creature must be destroyed, if there is no provision for repairing the injuries which she must commit upon herself, and the injuries which she must be exposed to from without. Therefore a treasure of blood is actually provided in the heart and vascular system, full of nutritious and healing particles, fluid enough to penetrate into the minutest parts of the animal. Impelled by the heart, and conveyed by the arteries, it washes every part, builds up what was broken down, and sweeps away the old and useless materials. plus of this blood, beyond what was required to repair the present damages of the machine, must not be lost, but should be returned again to the heart; and for this purpose the venal system is actually provided. These requisites in the animal explain, a priori, the circulation of the blood. The old materials, which are become useless, and are swept off by the current of blood, must be separated and thrown out of the system. Therefore glands, the organs of secretion, are given, for straining whatever is redundant, vapid, or noxious, from the mass of blood; and when strained, it is thrown out by excretories. Now, as the fabric must be constantly wearing, the reparation must be carried on without intermission, and the strainers must always be employed: therefore there is actually a perpetual circulation of the blood, and the secretions are always going on. But even all this provision would not be sufficient; for that store of blood would soon be consumed, and the fabric would break down, if there were not a provision made for fresh supplies. These we observe, in fact, are profusely scattered round her in the animal and vegetable kingdoms; and she is provided with hands, the finest instruments that could have been contrived, for gathering them, and for preparing them in a variety of different ways for the mouth. These supplies, which we call food, must be considerably changed; they must be converted into blood: therefore she is provided with teeth for cutting and bruising the food, and with a stomach for melting it down; in short, with all the organs subservient to digestion. The finer parts of the aliments only can be useful in the constitution: these must be taken up, and conveyed into the blood, and the dregs must be thrown off. With this view the intestinal canal is constructed. It separates the nutritious part, which we call chyle, to be conveyed into the blood by the system of absorbent.vessels; and the feces pass downwards, to be conducted out of the body. Now we have got our animal, not only furnished with what is wanted for its immediate existence, but also with the power of spinning out that existence to an indefinite length of time. But its duration, we may presume, must necessarily be limited: for as it is nourished, grows, and is raised up to its full strength and perfection, so it must, in time, in common with all material things, begin to decay, and then hurry on to final Hence we see the necessity of a Hence we see the necessity or advantage of the heart and arterial system: the over- ruin. scheme for renovation. Accordingly a wise Providence, to perpetuate as well as to preserve his work, besides giving a strong appetite for life and self-preservation, has made animals male and female, and given them such organs and passions as will secure the propagation of the species to the end of the world. Thus we see, that by the very imperfect survey which human reason is able to take of this subject, the animal man must necessarily be complex in his corporeal system, and in its operations. He must have one great and general system, the vascular, branching through the whole for circulation: another, the nervous, with its appendages, the organs of sense, for every kind of feeling and a third, for the union and connection of all those parts. : Besides these primary and general systems, he requires others, which may be more local or confined: one for strength, support, and protection; the bony compages: another for the requisite motions of the parts among themselves, as well as for moving from place to place; the muscular part of the body: another to prepare nourishment for the daily recruit of the body; the digestive organs and one for propagating the species; the organs of generation. In taking this general survey of what would appear, a priori, to be necessary for adapting an animal to the situations of humanity, we observe, with great satisfaction, that man is in fact made of such systems, and for such purposes. He has them all, and he has nothing more, except the organs of respiration. Breathing we cannot account for a priori, we only know that it is in fact essential to life. Notwithstanding this, when we see all the other parts of the body, and their functions, so well accounted for, and so wisely adapted to their several purposes, we cannot doubt that respiration is so likewise. We find, in fact, that the blood in its circulation becomes altered in its properties, and that these are renewed by the absorption of the oxygenous or pure part of the atmosphere in the lungs; we find also, that this function is the means of supporting the temperature of the animal, The use and necessity of all the different systems in a man's body is not more apparent than the wisdom and contrivance which has been exerted in putting them all into the most compact and convenient form, and in disposing them so, that they shall mutually receive and give helps to one another, and that all, or many of the parts, shall not only answer their principal end or purpose, but operate successfully and usefully in many secondary ways, If we understand and consider the whole animal machine in this light, and compare it with any machine, in which human art has done its utmost, suppose the best constructed ship that ever was built, we shall be convinced, beyond the possibility of doubt, that there is intelligence and power far surpassing what humanity can boast of. In making such a comparison, there is a peculiarity and superiority in the natural machine, which cannot escape observation. It is this; in machines of human contrivance or art there is no internal power, no principle in the machine itself, by which it can alter or accommodate itself to any injury, which it may suffer, or make up any injury which is reparable. But in the natural machine, the animal body, this is most wonderfully provided for by internal powers in the machine itself, many of which are not more certain or obvious in their effects, than they are above all human comprehension as to the manner and means of their operation. Thus, a wound heals up of itself; a broken bone is made firm again by callus; a dead part is separated and thrown off; noxious juices are driven out by some of the emunctories; a redundancy is removed by some spontaneous bleeding; a bleeding naturally stops of itself; and a great loss of blood, from any cause, is in some measure compensated by a contracting power in the vascular system, which accommodates the capacity of the vessels to the quantity contained. The stomach gives information when the supplies have been expended, represents with great exactness the quantity and quality of what is wanted in the present state of the machine, and in proportion as she meets with neglect, rises in her demand, urges her petition in a louder voice, and with more forcible arguments. For its protection, an animal body resists heat and cold in a very wonderful manner, and preserves an equal temperature in a burning and in a freezing atmosphere. There is a farther excellence or superiority in the natural machine, if possible, still more astonishing, more beyond all human comprehension, than what we have been speaking of. Besides those internal powers of self-preservation in each individual, when two of them co-operate, or act in concert, they are endued with powers of making other animals or machines like themselves, which again are possessed of the same |