monstrous projection is to be delineated: this space is called the craticular ectype. Lastly, in every areola, or small trapezium, of the space a b cd, draw what appears delineated in the correspondent areola of the square ABCD; and thus you will obtain a deformed image, which will appear in just proportion to an eye distant from it the length of FV, and raised above its height V S. An image may be deformed mechanically, if you place it, having little holes made here and there in it with a needle, against a candle, and observe where the rays going through these holes, fall on a plane or curve surface; for they will give the corresponding points of the image to be deformed. The practical methods of drawing these images is described in the Leipsic Act for the year 1712, where we have an account of two machines, one for images viewed with a cylindrical, and the other with a conical mirror. The person who has this instrument may take any point at pleasure, and while he goes over the outlines of it with one pen, another traces the anarmorphosis. In the cloister of the Minims at Paris, there are two anamorphoses traced upon two of the sides of the cloister, one representing a Magdalen, and the other St. John writing his gospel. They are so managed, that when viewed directly they appear like a kind of landscape, but from a particular point of sight they appear very distinctly, like human figures. ANANAS. See BROMELIA. ANAPEST, in ancient poetry, a foot consisting of two short syllables and one long such is the word scopulos. It is just the reverse of the dactyl. ANAPHORA, in rhetoric, a verbal figure, whereby one or more words are repeated in the beginning of several sentences, This is a lively and elegant figure, and serves very much to engage the attention; for by the frequent return of the same word, the mind of the hearer is held in an agreeable suspense till the whole is finished. Such is that in the Psalms: "The voice of the Lord is powerful: the voice of the Lord is full of majesty the voice of the Lord shaketh in the wilderness." Another from Cicero's fine oration against Catiline: "You do nothing, you attempt nothing, you think nothing, but what I not only hear, but also see and plainly perceive." ANARCHICHAS, in natural history, wolf-fish, a genus of fishes of the order Apodes: head rounded, blunt; fore-teeth in each jaw conic, large, divergent, six or more; grinders in the lower jaw and palate rounded; gill-membrane seven-rayed; body roundish, caudal-fin distinct. There are three species. A. lupus, or ravenous wolffish, inhabits the northern seas; grows to 15 feet long; it is a most fierce and ravenous fish, and will fasten on any thing within its reach. It feeds on shell-fish, which it grinds to pieces with its teeth, and swallows shells and all: moves slowly with something of a serpentine motion; the grind. ers are often found fossile, and are called toad-stones: the flesh is good, but not often eaten. The fossile teeth were formerly much esteemed for imaginary virtues, and were set in gold and worn as rings. Notwithstanding the ferocity of this fish, which is as dreadful to the small inhabitants of the water, as the wolf is to those on land, it is sometimes attacked and destroyed by an enemy of far inferior size and strength, viz. the cyclopterus, or lump-fish, which fastening itself on its neck, adheres immoveably, tormenting it in such a manner as to cause its death. The wolf-fish frequents the deep part of the sea, and in the spring approaches the coast, in order to deposit its spawn among marine plants: the ova are about the size of peas; and the young are of a greenish cast, like that of sea-wrack, among which they reside for some time after their birth. See Plate I. Pisces, fig. 3. A. minor is found in the Greenland seas; and the A. pantherinus inhabits the North ern and Frozen Ocean. ANARRHINUM, in botany, a genus of the Didynamia Angiosperma class and order: calyx five-leaved; coral with a nectariferous prominence at its base pointing downwards; the upper-lip flat, without palate, and the orifice pervious; capsule two-celled, many-valved. There are five species.. ANAS, in natural history, a genus of birds of the order Anseres. The bill in this genus is strong, broad, flat or depressed, and commonly furnished at the end with an additional piece termed a nail, the edges of the mandibles marked with sharp teeth; nostrils small, oval: tongue broad, edges near the base fringed; toes four, three before and one behind, the middle one the longest. According to Latham, there are 98 species, besides varieties; but Gmelin gives about 120 species. From the swan downward to the teal, they are all a clean-plumaged beautiful race of birds, and some of them exquisitely so. Those which have been reclaimed from a state of nature, and live dependant on man, are extremely useful to him: under his protection they breed in great abundance, and, without requiring much of his time and care, lead their young to the pool, almost as soon as hatched, where they instantly, with instinctive perception, begin to search for their food, which at first consists chiefly of weeds, worms, and insects; those they sift, as it were, from the mud, and for that purpose their bills are admirably adapted. When they are farther advanced in life, they pick up the sodden scattered grain of the farm-yard, which, but for their assiduous searchings, would be lost. To them also are allotted the larger quantities of corn which are shaken by the winds from the over-ripened ears in the fields. On this clean and simple food they soon become fat, and their flesh is accounted delicious and nourishing. In a wild state, birds of various kinds preserve their original plumage; but when tamed, they soon begin to vary, and shew the effects of domestication: this is the case with the tame goose and the duck, which differ as much from the wild of their respective kinds, as they do from each other. We shall notice the following, as among the most interesting of the species. Anas Cygnus Ferus, the wild swan, measures five feet in length, and above seven in breadth, and weighs from thirteen to sixteen pounds. The bill is three inches long, of a yellowish white; from the base to the middle, and thence to the tip, black; the bare space from the bill over the eye and eye-lids is yellow: the whole plumage in adult birds is of a pure white, and, next to the skin, they are cloathed with a thick fine down the legs are black. This species generally keeps together in small flocks, or families, except in the pairing season, and at the setting in of winter. At the latter period they assemble in immense multitudes, particularly on the large rivers and lakes of the thinly-inhabited northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America: but when the extremity of the weather threatens to become insupportable, in order to shun the gathering storm they shape their course high in air, in divided and diminished numbers, in search of milder climates. In such seasons they are most commonly seen in various parts of the British isles, and in other more southern countries of Europe. The same is observed of them in the North Ame rican states. They do not, however, remain longer than till the approach of the spring, when they again retire northward to the arctic regions to breed. A few, indeed drop short, and perform that office by the way, for they are known to breed in some of the Hebrides, the Orkney, Shetland, and other solitary isles; but these are hardly worth notice: the great bodies of them are met with in the large rivers and lakes near Hudson's Bay, and those of Kamtschatka, Lapland, and Iceland. They are said to return to the latter place in flocks of about a hundred at a time in the spring, and also to pour in upon that island from the north, in nearly the same manner. on their way southward, in the autumn. The young which are bred there remain throughout the first year; and in August, when they are in moult, and unable to fly, the natives taking advantage of this, kill them with clubs, shoot, and hunt them down with dogs, by which they are easily caught. The flesh is highly esteemed by them as a delicious food, as are also the eggs, which are gathered in the spring. The Icelanders, Kamtscatdales, and other natives of the northern world, dress their skins with the down on, sew them together, and make them into garments of various kinds: the northern American Indians do the same, and sometimes weave the down as barbers weave the cauls for wigs, and then manufacture it iuto ornamental dresses for the women of rank, while the larger feathers are formed into caps and plumes to decorate the heads of their chiefs and warriors. They also gather the feathers and down in large quantities, and barter or sell them to the inhabitants of more civilized nations. Much has been said of the singing of the swan, in ancient times, and many beautiful and poetical descriptions have been given of its dying song. No fiction of natural history, no fable of antiquity, was ever more celebrated, often repeated, or better received: it occupied the soft and lively imagination of the Greeks; poets, orators, and even philosophers, adopted it as a truth too pleasing to be doubted. The dull insipid truth, however, is very different from such amiable and affecting fables, for the voice of the swan, singly, is shrill, piercing, and harsh, not unlike the sound of a clarionet when blown by a novice in music. It is, nevertheless, asserted by those who have heard the united and varied voices of a numerous assemblage of them, that they produce a more harmonious effect, particu larly when softened by the murmur of the waters. At the setting in of frosty weather, the wild swans are said to associate in prodigious multitudes, and, thus united, to use every effort to prevent the water from freezing this they accomplish by the continual stir kept up amongst them; and by constantly dashing it with their extended wings, they are enabled to remain as long as it suits their convenience, in some favourite part of a lake or river which abounds with their food. The swan is very properly entitled the peaceful monarch of the lake conscious of his superior strength, he fears no enemy, nor suffers any bird, however powerful, to molest him; neither does he prey upon any one. His vigorous wing is as a shield against the attacks even of the eagle, and the blows from it are said to be so powerful as to stun or kill the fiercest of his foes. The wolf or the fox may surprise him in the dark, but their efforts are vain in the day. His food consists of the grasses and weeds, and the seeds and roots of plants which grow on the margins of the water, and of the myriads of insects which skim over, or float on its surface; also occasionally of the slimy inhabitants within its bosom. The female makes her nest of the withered leaves and stalks of reeds and rushes, and lays commonly six or seven thick-shelled white eggs: she is said to sit upon them six weeks before they are hatched. Both male and female are very attentive to their young, and will suffer no enemy to approach them. Anas Cygnus Mansuetus, or mute swan. The plumage of this species is of the same snowy whiteness as that of the wild swan, and the bird is covered next the body with the same kind of fine close down; but it greatly exceeds the wild swan in size, weighing about twenty-five pounds, and measuring more in the length of the body and extent of the wings. This also differs in being furnished with a projecting, callous, black tubercle, or knob, on the base of the upper mandible, and in the colour of the bill, which in this is red, with black edges and tip; the naked skin between the bill and the eyes is also of the latter colour: in the wild swan this bare space is yellow. The swan, although possessed of the power to rule, yet molests none of the other water-birds, and is singularly social and attentive to those of his own family, which he protects from every insult. While they are employed with the cares of the young brood, it is not safe to approach 66 near them, for they will fly upon any stranger, whom they often beat to the ground by repeated blows; and they have been known by a stroke of the wing to break a man's leg. But, however powerful they are with their wings, yet a slight blow on the head will kill them. The swan, for ages past, has been protected on the river Thames as royal property; and it continues at this day to be accounted felony to steal their eggs. 16 By this means their increase is secured, and they prove a delightful ornament to that noble river." Latham says, In the reign of Edward IV. the estimation they were held in was such, that no one who possessed a freehold of less than the clear yearly value of five marks, was permitted even to keep any." In those times, hardly a piece of water was left unoccupied by these birds, as well on account of the gratification they gave to the eye of their lordly owners, as that which they also afforded when they graced the sumptuous board at the splendid feasts of that period : but the fashion of those days is passed away, and swans are not nearly so common now as they were formerly, being by most people accounted a coarse kind of food, and consequently held in little estimation; but the cygnets (so the young swans are called) are still fattened for the table, and are sold very high, commonly for a guinea each, and sometimes for more: hence it may be presumed, they are better food than is generally imagined. This species is said to be found in great numbers in Russia and Siberia, as well as further southward, in a wild state. They are, without an owner, common on the river Trent, and on the salt-water inlet of the sea near Abbotsbury, in Dorsetshire: they are also met on other rivers and lakes in different parts of the British isles. The female makes her nest, concealed among the rough herbage, near the water's edge: she lays from six to eight large white eggs, and sits on them about six weeks (some say eight weeks) before they are hatched. The young do not acquire their full plumage till the second year. It is found by experience that the swan will not thrive if kept out of the water: confined in a court yard, he makes an aukward figure, and soon becomes dirty, tawdry, dull, and spiritless. Anas Canadensis, or Canada goose, is another useful species, which has been reclaimed from a state of nature, and domesticated and multiplied in many parts of Europe, particularly in France and Ger : many; and it is not very uncommon in England. It is as familiar, breeds as freely, and is in every respect as valuable as the common goose: it is also accounted a great ornament on ponds near gentlemen's seats. Mr. Pennant, in his Arctic Zoology, gives the following interesting account of the mode of taking the Canada goose in Hudson's Bay "The English of Hudson's Bay depend greatly on geese, of these and other kinds, for their support; and, in favourable years, kill three or four thousand, which they salt and barrel. Their arrival is impatiently attended; it is the harbinger of the spring, and the month named by the Indians the Goose Moon. They appear usually at our settlements in numbers, about St. George's Day, O. S., and fly northward to nestle in security. They prefer islands to the continent, as further from the haunts of men. Thus, Marble Island was found, in August, to swarm with swans, geese, and ducks; the old ones moulting, and the young at that time incapable of flying." "The English send out their servants, as well as Indians, to shoot these birds on their passage. It is in vain to pursue them; they therefore form a row of huts made of boughs, at musquet-shot distance from each other, and place them in a line across the vast marshes of the country. Each hovel, or, as they are called, stand, is occupied by only a single person. These attend the flight of the birds, and, on their approach, mimic their cackle so well, that the geese will answer, and wheel and come nearer the stand, The sportsman keeps motionless, and on his knees, with his gun cocked, the whole time, and never fires till he has seen the eyes of the geese. He fires as they are going from him, then picks up another gun that lies by him, and discharges that. The geese which he has killed he sets up on sticks, as if alive, to decoy others; he also makes artificial birds for the same purpose. In a good day (for they fly in very uncertain and unequal numbers) a single Indian will kill two hundred. Notwithstanding every species of goose has a different call, yet the Indians are admirable in their imitation of every one.”— "The vernal flight of the geese lasts from the middle of April until the middle of May. Their first appearance coincides with the thawing of the swamps, when they are very lean. The autumnal, or the season of their return with their young, is from the middle of August to the middle of October, Those which are taken in this latter seasor, when the frosts usually begin, are preserved in their feathers, and left to be frozen, for the fresh provisions of the winter stock. The feathers constitute an article of commerce, and are sent into England." Anas Anser, or tame goose. To describe the varied plumage and the economy of this well-known and valuable domestic fowl, may seem to many a needless task; but to others, unacquainted with rural affairs, it may be interesting. Their predominant colours are white and grey, with shades of ash, blue, and brown: some of them are yellowish, others dusky, and many are found to differ very little in appearance from the wild kind last described-the original stock whence, in early times, they were all derived. The only permanent mark, which all the grey ones still retain, like those of the wild kind, is the white ring which surrounds the root of the tail, They are generally furnished with a small tuft on the head, and the most usual colour of the males (gander or stig) is pure white : the bills and feet in both males and females are of an orange-red. By studied attention in the breeding, two sorts of these geese have been obtained: the less are by many esteemed as being more delicate eating; the larger are by others preferred on account of the bountiful appearance they make upon the festive board. The average weight of the latter kind is between nine and fifteen pounds; but instances are not wanting, where they have been fed to upwards of twenty pounds: this is, however, to sacrifice the flavour of the food to the size and appearance of the bird, for they become disgustingly fat and surfeiting, and the methods used to cram them up are unnatural and cruel, It is not, however, altogether on account of their use as food that they are valuable; their feathers, their down, and their quills have long been considered as articles of more importance, and from which their owners reap more advantages. In this respect the poor creatures have not been spared: urged by avarice, their inhuman masters appear to have ascertained the exact quantity of plumage of which they can bear to be robbed, without being deprived of life. Mr. Pennant, in describing the methods used in Lincolnshire, in breeding, rearing, and plucking geese, says, "they are plucked five times in the year; first at Lady-day for the feathers and quills; this business is renewed for the feathers only, four times more between that and Michaelmas:" he adds, that he saw the ope :: ration performed even upon goslings of six weeks old, from which the feathers of the tails were plucked; and that numbers of the geese die when the season afterwards proves cold. But this unfeeling greedy business is not peculiar to one country, for much the same is practised in others. The care and attention bestowed upon the brood geese, while they are engaged in the business of incubation, in the month of April, is nearly the same every where: wickerpens are provided for them, placed in rows, and tier above tier, not uncommonly under the same roof as their owner. Some place water and corn near the nests; others drive them to the water twice a day, and replace each female upon her own nest as soon as the returns. This business requires the attendance of the gozzard (goose-herd) a month at least, in which time the young are brought forth as soon afterwards as the brood are able to waddle along, they are, together with their dams, driven to the contiguous longhs and fens or marshes, on whose grassy margined pools they feed and thrive, without requiring any further attendance until the autumn. To these marshes, which otherwise would be unoccupied, (except by wild birds) and be only useless, watery wastes, we are principally indebted for so great a supply of the goose; for in almost every country, where lakes and marshes abound, the neighbouring inhabitants keep as many as suit their convenience; and in this way immense numbers annually attain to full growth and perfection; but in no part of the world are such numbers reared, as in the fens of Lincolnshire, where it is said to be no uncommon thing for a single person to keep a thousand old geese, each of which, on an average, will bring up seven young ones. So far those only are noticed which may properly be called the larger flocks, by which particular watery districts are peopled; and, although their aggregate numbers are great, yet they form only a part of the large family: those of the farm-yard, taken separately, appear as small specks on a great map; but when they are gathered together, and added to those kept by almost every cottager throughout the kingdom, the immense whole will appear multiplied in a ratio almost incalculable. A great part of those which are left to provide for themselves during the summer, in the solitary distant waters, as well as those which enliven the village green, are put into the stubble fields after harvest, to fatten upon the scattered grain; and some are penned up for this purpose, by which they attain to greater bulk; and it is hardly necessary to observe, that they are then poured in weekly upon the tables of the luxurious citizens of every town in the kingdom. But these distant and divided supplies seem trifling when compared with the multitudes which, in the season, are driven in all directions into the metropolis: the former appear only like the scanty waterings of the petty streamlet; the latter like the copious overflowing torrent of a large river. To the country market towns they are carried in bags and panniers; to the great centre of trade they are sent in droves of many thousands. To a stranger it is a most curious spectacle to view these hissing, cackling, gabbling, but peaceful armies, with grave deportment, waddling along, (like other armies) to certain destruction. The drivers are each provided with a long stick, at one end of which a red rag is tied as a lash, and a hook is fixed at the other: with the former, of which the geese seem much afraid, they are excited forward; and with the latter, such as attempt to stray, are caught by the neck and kept in order; or if lame, they are put into a hospital-cart, which usually follows each large drove. In this manner they perform their journies from distant parts, and are said to get forward at the rate of eight or ten miles in a day, from three in the morning till nine at night: those which become fatigued are fed with oats, and the rest with barley. The tame goose lays from seven to twelve eggs, and sometimes more: these the careful housewife divides equally among her brood geese, when they begin to sit. Those of her geese which lay a second time in the course of the summer, are seldom, if ever, permitted to have a second hatching; but the eggs are used for household purposes. In some countries the domestic geese require much less care and attendance than those of this country. The goose has for many ages been celebrated on account of its vigilance. The story of the saving of Rome by the alarm they gave, when the Gauls were attempting the Capitol, is well known, and was probably the first time of their watchfulness being recorded, and, on that account, they were afterwards held in the highest estimation by the Roman people. It is certain, that nothing can stir in the night, nor the least or most distant noise be made, but the geese are roused, and immediately begin to hold their cackling converse; and on the nearer approach of apprehended danger, they set |